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AEROPLANES    AND 
DIRIGIBLES  OF  WAR 


By  the  same  Author. 
Uniformly  bound,  Demy  8vo. 


MOVING  PICTURES:  How  they  are 
Made  and  Worked. 

LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES. 

THE   STEAMSHIP    CONQUEST    OF 
THE  WORLD. 

THE  RAILWAY  CONQUEST  OF  THE 
WORLD. 

ALSO 

PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY. 

Crown  8yo. 


Philadelphia  : 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


AEROPLANES   AND 
DIRIGIBLES  OF  WAR 


BY 

FREDERICK   A.    TALBOT 

AUTHOR   OF    "moving   PICTURES,"   ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA:  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

LONDON:  WILLIAM    HEINEMANN 

MCMXV 


r3 


PriHted  in  Great  Britain. 


PREFACE 


Ever  since  the  earliest  days  of  the  great  conquest 
of  the  air,  first  by  *he  dirigible  balloon  and  then  by 
the  aeroplane,  their  use  in  time  of  war  has  been  a 
fruitful  theme  for  discussion.  But  their  arrival  was 
of  too  recent  a  date,  their  many  utilities  too 
unexplored  to  provide  anything  other  than  theories, 
many  obviously  untenable,  others  avowedly  problem- 
atical. 

Yet  the  part  airships  have  played  in  the  Greatest 
War  has  come  as  a  surprise  even  to  their  most  con- 
vinced advocates.  For  every  expectation  shattered, 
they  have  shown  a  more  than  compensating  possi- 
bihty  of  usefulness. 

In  this  volume  an  endeavour  has  been  made  to 
record  their  achievements,  under  the  stern  test  of 
trial,  as  an  arm  of  war,  and  to  explain,  in  untechnical 
language,  the  many  services  to  which  they  have 
been  and  may  be  applied. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  work  I  have  received 
assistance  from  many  sources — British,  French, 
Russian  and  German — from  official  reports  and  from 


358029 


vi  PREFACE 

men  who  have  played  a  part  in  the  War  in  the  Air. 
The  information  concerning  German  mihtary  air- 
craft has  been  obtained  from  Government  documents, 
most  of  which  were  placed  at  my  disposal  before 
the  outbreak  of  war. 

The  use  of  aircraft  has  changed  the  whole  art  and 
science  of  warfare.  With  its  disabilities  well  in 
hand,  with  its  strength  but  half  revealed,  the 
aerial  service  has  revolutionised  strategy  and  shorn 
the  unexpected  attack  of  half  its  terrors.  The 
Fourth  Arm  is  now  an  invaluable  part  of  the  complex 

military  machine. 

F.   A.  TALBOT. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP.  PAGE 

I.      THE    INTRODUCTION   OF    AIRCRAFT    INTO   MILI- 
TARY OPERATIONS I 

II.      THE  MILITARY   USES  OF   THE  CAPTIVE  BALLOON  1 1 

III.  GERMANY'S   RISE   TO  MILITARY  AIRSHIP  SUPRE- 

MACY            25 

IV.  AIRSHIPS   OF  WAR 41 

V.      GERMANY'S   AERIAL   DREADNOUGHT   FLEET         .  58 

VI.      THE    MILITARY    VALUE    OF    GERMANY'S    AERIAL 

FLEET 70 

VII.      AEROPLANES   OF  WAR 81 

VIIL      SCOUTING   FROM  THE  SKIES    .         .         .         .         .  94 

IX.      THE  AIRMAN  AND  ARTILLERY         .          .          .          .  II4 

X.      BOMB-THROWING   FROM   AIR-CRAFT        .          .          .  I24 

XI.      ARMOURED  AEROPLANES I44 

XII.      BATTLES   IN  THE  AIR 1 58 

XIII.  TRICKS  AND   RUSES  TO   BAFFLE  THE  AIRMAN    .  1 73 

XIV.  ANTI-AIRCRAFT  GUNS.      MOBILE  WEAPONS           .  1 85 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XV.  ANTI-AIRCRAFT   GUNS.      IMMOBILE  WEAPONS     .  I99 

XVI.      MINING  THE  AIR 217 

XVII       WIRELESS   IN   AVIATION 229 

XVIII.  AIRCRAFT  AND  NAVAL  OPERATIONS      .         .         .  243 

XIX.      THE  NAVIES  OF  THE  AIR 260 

INDEX    .         .         .         . 277 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING 
PAGB 


The  Military  Area  of  Flanders  as  seen  from  an 
Aeroplane Frontispiece 

A  British  Military  Reconnoitring  Balloon  going  Aloft      .         8 

Cylinders  of  Hydrogen  for  Inflating  a  British  Captive 

Military  Reconnoitring  Balloon 9 

One  of  the  Greatest  Zeppelins  for  Passenger  Service — 

The  "  Schwaben " 28 

A  Schiitte-Lanz  Rigid  Dirigible  issuing  from  its  Shed     .        29 

German  Airship  of  the  Schiitte-Lanz  Type  in  Course  of 

Construction 42 

Schiitte-Lanz  type  of  Dirigible  entering  its  Shed       .       .  43 

The  British  Dirigible  "  Gamma  "  at  Anchor       ...  54 

The  Car  of  a  British  Military  Dirigible       .        .       .       .  55 

Belgian  Mechanics  Repairing  an  Aeroplane  Engine  at 

the  Aviation  Base  of  the   Allies   in  the   North  of 

France 76 

A  Military  Aeroplane  Repair  Workshop  in  the  North  of 

France 'J^ 

German  Albatross  Waterplane 84 

Launching  a  White   Seaplane  showing  the  Floats  and 

Staying  System 85 

A  French  Aeroplane  Base  behind  the  Trenches  .  .  88 
The  "  Short "  type  of  British  Seaplane  which  has  proved 

so  successful 89 

Full  Speed  Ahead  !] , 100 


IX 


X  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
PAGE 

Belgian  Aviator  Handing  Results  of  a  Reconnaissance 

to  a  Motor  Despatch-Rider loi 

The"Fl^chette"or  Steel  Dart 126 

A  Zeppelin  Bomb 126 

Nose  of  the  Grenade  showing  Fuse-head  Mechanism      .      127 

Section  of  Zeppelin  Hand  Grenade 127 

A  Hand-dropped  Aeroplane  Bomb 136 

A   Dart-shaped   Bomb  which   is   thrown   from   French 

Aeroplanes 137 

A  British  Aeroplane  armed  with  a  Vickers  Gun         .        .      1 50 
Unloading    Bombs    and    Gasoline    or    Petrol  from    an 

Aeroplane  Supply  Train 151 

A   British   Aeroplane  brought  down  in   the   North    of 

France 168 

Transporting  a  Belgian  VVarplane  to  the  Aviation  Base 

in  Northern  France 169 

"Archibald,"  the  German  Motor  Mounted  Anti-aircraft 

Gun 192 

Krupp-Armoured  Motor-car  with  7*1  centimetre  Gun  for 

Fighting  Aerial  Craft 193 

The  latest  Krupp  Anti-aircraft  Gun,  showing  Novel  Dis- 
position of  Wheels 206 

French  Soldiers  with  Machine  Gun  Firing  upon  Hostile 

Aeroplanes 207 

Warplane  or  Dreadnought  ? 248 

Seaplane  Launching  Platform  on  H.M.S.  "  Hibernia"    .      249 


IN   TEXT 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Showing  how   Wind  aflfects   the   Efficiency   of  the 

Captive  Balloon 12 

2.  Finding  the  Range  of  a  Captive  Balloon,  First  Round        19 

3.  Finding  the   Range  of  a   Captive   Balloon,  Second 

Round 20 

4.  Finding  the  Range  of  a  Captive  Balloon,  Third  Round      21 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

FIG.  PAGE 

5.  Finding  the  Range  of  a  Captive  Balloon,  Fourth  Round      2 1 

6.  Section  through  Torres  Type  of  Dirigible  showing 

Form  of  Design  and  Construction    ....        56 

7.  Bomb-dropping  from  a  Rapidly-moving  Aeroplane    .      134 

8.  The    Influence    of    an    Adverse    Wind    upon    the 

Trajectory  of  the  Bomb 135 

9.  Section  of  Upper  End  or  Tail  of  ''Fl^chette"   .       .      141 

10.  How  B,  being  able  to  Fire  ahead,  loses  Advantage 

by  Overhauling  A,  because  in  Position  2  B  comes 
within  Range  of  Gun  of  A 153 

11.  The  Advantage  of  both  Ahead  and  Astern  Gun-fire        154 

12.  The  "  Smoke  Screen  "  in  the  Air 172 

13.  The  German  Method  of  Picking  up  the  Range  with 

Anti-aircraft  Gun-fire 211 

14.  The  German  Method  of  Picking  up  the  Range  with 

Anti-aircraft  Guns 212 

1 5.  How  the  Fighting  Zone  is  divided  into  Triangles  to 

secure  Protection  against  Aerial  Attack.   An  Anti- 
aircraft Gun  is  disposed  at  each  corner    .       .       .      215 


CHAPTER  I 

THE    INTRODUCTION    OF   AIRCRAFT   INTO    MILITARY 
OPERATIONS 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  an  invention, 
which  is  hailed  as  being  one  of  the  greatest  achieve- 
ments ever  recorded  in  the  march  of  civiHsation, 
should  be  devoted  essentially  to  the  maiming  of 
humanity  and  the  destruction  of  property.  In  no 
other  trend  of  human  endeavour  is  this  factor  so 
potently  demonstrated  as  in  connection  with  Man's 
Conquest  of  the  Air. 

The  dogged  struggle  against  the  blind  forces  of 
Nature  was  waged  tenaciously  and  perseveringly  for 
centuries.  But  the  measure  of  success  recorded 
from  time  to  time  was  so  disappointing  as  to  convey 
the  impression,  except  in  a  limited  circle,  that  the 
problem  was  impossible  of  solution. 

In  the  meantime  wondrous  changes  had  taken 
place  in  the  methods  of  transportation  by  land  and 
sea.    The  steam  and  electric  railway,  steam  pro- 

B 


2      AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

pulsion  of  vessels,  and  mechanical  movement  along 
the  highroads  had  been  evolved  and  advanced  to  a 
high  standard  of  perfection,  to  the  untold  advantage 
of  the  community.  Consequently  it  was  argued,  if 
only  a  system  of  travel  along  the  aerial  highways 
could  be  estabUshed,  then  all  other  methods  of 
mechanical  transportation  would  be  rendered,  if  not 
entirely  obsolete,  at  least  antiquated. 

At  last  man  triumphed  over  Nature — at  least  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  inspire  the  confidence  of  the 
world  at  large,  and  to  bring  aerial  travel  and  trans- 
portation within  range  of  reaHsation.  But  what 
has  been  the  result  ?  The  discovery  is  not  devoted 
to  the  interests  of  peace  and  economic  development, 
but  to  extermination  and  destruction. 

At  the  same  time  this  development  may  be 
explained.  The  airship  and  aeroplane  in  the  present 
stage  of  evolution  possess  no  economic  value.  True, 
cross-country  cruises  by  airship  have  been  in- 
augurated, and,  up  to  a  point,  have  proved  popularly, 
if  not  commercially,  successful,  while  tentative 
efforts  have  been  made  to  utilise  the  aeroplane  as 
a  mail-carrier.  Still,  from  the  view-point  of  the 
community  at  large  aerial  travel  is  as  remote  as  it 
was  centuries  ago. 

It  is  somewhat  interesting  to  observe  how  history 
is  repeating  itself.  When  the  Montgolfiers  succeeded 
in  lifting  themselves  into  the  air  by  means  of  a 
vessel  inflated  with  hot  air,  the  new  vehicle  was  hailed 
not  so  much  as  one  possessed  of  commercial  possi- 


THE  CAPTIVE  BALLOON  3 

bilities,  but  as  an  engine  of  war !  When  the  in- 
domitable courage  and  perseverance  of  Count  von 
Zeppelin  in  the  face  of  discouraging  disasters  and 
flagrant  failures,  at  last  commanded  the  attention 
of  the  German  Emperor,  the  latter  regarded  the 
Zeppelin  craft,  not  from  the  interests  af  peace,  but 
as  a  military  weapon,  and  the  whole  of  the  subse- 
quent efforts  of  the  Imperial  admirer  were  devoted 
to  the  perfection  of  the  airship  in  this  one  direction. 

Other  nations,  when  they  embarked  on  an  identical 
line  of  development,  considered  the  airship  from  a 
similar  point  of  view.  In  fact,  outside  Germany, 
there  was  very  little  private  initiative  in  this  field. 
Experiments  and  developments  were  undertaken 
by  the  mihtary  or  naval,  and  in  some  instances  by 
both  branches,  of  the  respective  Powers.  Conse- 
quently the  aerial  craft,  whether  it  be  a  dirigible 
airship,  or  an  aeroplane,  can  only  be  regarded  from 
the  military  point  of  view. 

Despite  the  achievements  which  have  been  re- 
corded by  human  endeavour  in  the  field  of  aerial 
travel,  the  balloon  per  se  has  by  no  means  been 
superseded.  It  still  remains  an  invaluable  adjunct 
to  the  fighting  machine.  In  Great  Britain  its 
value  in  this,  direction  has  never  been  ignored  : 
of  late,  indeed,  it  has  rather  been  developed.  The 
captive  balloon  is  regarded  as  an  indispensable  unit 
to  both  field  and  sea  operations.  This  fact  was 
emphasised  very  strongly  in  connection  with  the 
British    naval    attacks    upon    the    German    forces 

B  2 


4      AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

in  Flanders,  and  it  contributed  to  the  dis- 
comfiture of  the  German  hordes  in  a  very  emphatic 
manner. 

The  captive  balloon  may  be  operated  from  any 
spot  where  facilities  exist  for  anchoring  the  paying- 
out  cable  together  with  winding  facilities  for  the  latter. 
Consequently ,  if  exigencies  demand,  it  may  be  operated 
from  the  deck  of  a  warship  so  long  as  the  latter  is 
stationary,  or  even  from  an  automobile.  It  is  of 
small  cubic  capacity,  inasmuch  as  it  is  only 
necessary  for  the  bag  to  contain  sufficient  gas 
to  lift  one  or  two  men  to  a  height  of  about 
500  or  600  feet. 

When  used  in  the  field  the  balloon  is  generally 
inflated  at  the  base,  to  be  towed  or  carried  forward 
by  a  squad  of  men  while  floating  in  the  air,  perhaps 
at  a  height  of  10  feet.  A  dozen  men  will  suffice  for 
this  duty  as  a  rule,  and  in  calm  weather  little 
difficulty  is  encountered  in  moving  from  point  to 
point.  This  method  possesses  many  advantages. 
The  balloon  can  be  inflated  with  greater  ease  at  the 
base,  where  it  is  immune  from  interference  by 
hostile  fire.  Moreover,  the  facihties  for  obtaining 
the  requisite  inflating  agent — ^hydrogen  or  coal 
gas — are  more  convenient  at  such  a  point.  If  the 
base  be  far  removed  from  the  spot  at  which  it  is 
desired  to  operate  the  balloon,  the  latter  is  inflated 
at  a  convenient  point  nearer  the  requisite  position, 
advantage  being  taken  of  the  protective  covering 
offered  by  a  copse  or  other  natural  obstacle. 


BRITISH  AND   FRENCH  BALLOONS  5 

As  is  well  known,  balloons  played  an  important 
part  during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  1 870-1,  not  only 
in  connection  with  daring  attempts  to  communicate 
with  the  outer  world,  but  in  reconnoitring  the 
German  positions  around  the  beleaguered  city. 
But  this  was  not  the  first  military  application  of 
the  aerial  vessel ;  it  was  used  by  the  French  against 
the  Austrians  in  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  and  also 
during  the  American  Civil  War.  These  operations, 
however,  were  of  a  sporadic  character ;  they 
were  not  part  and  parcel  of  an  organised  military 
section. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  British  War 
Office  virtually  pioneered  the  military  use  of  balloons, 
and  subsequently  the  methods  perfected  in  Britain 
became  recognised  as  a  kind  of  "  standard " 
and  were  adopted  generally  by  the  Powers  with 
such  modifications  as  local  exigencies  seemed  to 
demand. 

The  British  military  balloon  department  was 
inaugurated  at  Chatham  under  Captain  Templer 
in  1879.  I^  was  devoted  essentially  to  the  employ- 
ment of  captive  balloons  in  war,  and  in  1880  a 
company  of  the  Royal  Engineers  was  detailed  to 
the  care  of  this  work  in  the  field.  Six  years  pre- 
viously the  French  military  department  had  adopted 
the  captive  balloon  under  Colonel  Laussedat,  who 
was  assisted  among  others  by  the  well-known 
Captain  Renard.  Germany  was  somewhat  later 
in  the  field ;  the  military  value  of  captive  balloons 


6      AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

was  not  appreciated  and  taken  into  serious 
consideration  here  until  1884.  But  although  British 
efforts  were  preceded  by  the  French  the  latter 
did  not  develop  the  idea  upon  accepted  military 
lines. 

The  British  authorities  were  confronted  with 
many  searching  problems.  One  of  the  earliest 
and  greatest  difficulties  encountered  was  in  con- 
nection with  the  gas  for  inflation.  Coal  gas  was  not 
always  readily  available,  so  that  hydrogen  had 
to  be  depended  upon  for  the  most  part.  But 
then  another  difficulty  arose.  This  was  the  manu- 
facture of  the  requisite  gas.  Various  methods  were 
tested,  such  as  the  electrolytic  decomposition  of 
water,  the  decomposition  of  sulphuric  acid  by  means 
of  iron,  the  reaction  between  slaked  lime  and  zinc, 
and  so  forth. 

But  the  drawbacks  to  every  process,  especially 
upon  the  field  of  battle,  when  operations  have  to 
be  conducted  under  extreme  difficulties  and  at 
high  pressure,  were  speedily  recognised.  While 
other  nations  concentrated  their  energies  upon  the 
simplification  of  hydrogen-manufacturing  apparatus 
for  use  upon  the  battle-field.  Great  Britain  abandoned 
all  such  processes  in  toto.  Our  military  organisation 
preferred  to  carry  out  the  production  of  the  necessary 
gas  at  a  convenient  manufacturing  centre  and  to 
transport  it,  stored  in  steel  cylinders  under  pressure, 
to  the  actual  scene  of  operations.  The  method 
proved  a  great  success,  and  in  this  way  it  was  found 


CAPTAIN  TEMPLER  7 

possible  to  inflate  a  military  balloon  in  the  short 
space  of  20  minutes,  whereas,  under  the  conditions 
of  making  gas  upon  the  spot,  a  period  of  four  hours 
or  more  was  necessary,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
manufacturing  process  is  relatively  slow  and  intricate. 
The  practicability  of  the  British  idea  and  its  per- 
fection served  to  establish  the  captive  balloon 
as  a  military  unit. 

The  British  military  ballooning  department  has 
always  ranked  as  the  foremost  of  its  type  among 
the  Powers,  although  its  work  has  been  carried  out 
so  unostentatiously  that  the  outside  world  has 
gleaned  very  little  information  concerning  its  oper- 
ations. Captain  Templer  was  an  indefatigable 
worker  and  he  brought  the  ballooning  section  to 
a  high  degree  of  efficiency  from  the  military  point 
of  view. 

But  the  British  Government  was  peculiarly 
favoured,  if  such  a  term  may  be  used.  Our  little 
wars  in  various  parts  of  the  world  contributed 
valuable  information  and  experience  which  was 
fully  turned  to  account.  Captive  balloons  for 
reconnoitring  purposes  were  used  by  the  British 
army  for  the  first  time  at  Suakim  in  1885,  and  the 
section  established  its  value  very  convincingly. 
The  French  military  balloon  department  gained  its 
first  experience  in  this  field  in  the  previous  year, 
a  balloon  detachment  having  been  dispatched  to 
Tonkin  in  1884.  In  both  the  Tonkin  and  Soudan 
campaigns,  invaluable  work  was  accomplished  by 


8      AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

the  balloon  sections,  with  the  result  that  this  aerial 
vehicle  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable 
military  adjunct.  Indeed  the  activity  of  the 
German  military  ballooning  section  was  directly 
attributable  to  the  Anglo-French  achievements 
therewith. 

In  this  work,  however,  the  British  force  speedily 
displayed  its  superiority  and  initiative.  The  use  of 
compressed  hydrogen  was  adopted,  and  within 
the  course  of  a  few  years  the  other  Powers,  realising 
the  advantages  which  the  British  department 
had  thus  obtained,  decided  to  follow  its  example. 
The  gas  is  stored  in  cylinders  under  a  pressure 
varying  from  six  to  ten  or  more  atmospheres  ;  in 
other  words  from  about  80  to  140  or  more  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Special  military  wagons  have 
been  designed  for  the  transport  of  these  cylinders, 
and  they  are  attached  to  the  balloon  train. 

The  balloon  itself  is  light,  and  made  of  such 
materials  as  to  reduce  the  weight  thereof  to  the 
minimum.  The  British  balloons  are  probably  the 
smallest  used  by  any  of  the  Powers,  but  at  the  same 
time  they  are  the  most  expensive.  They  are  made 
of  goldbeater's  skin,  and  range  in  capacity  from 
7,000  to  10,000  cubic  feet,  the  majority  being  of 
the  former  capacity.  The  French  balloon  on  the 
other  hand  has  a  capacity  exceeding  18,000  cubic 
feet,  although  a  smaller  vessel  of  9,000  cubic  feet 
capacity,  known  as  an  auxiliary,  and  carrying  a 
single  observer,  is  used. 


*        »     5,     »     *     »         • 


V      '    )     •    1 


A  British  Military  Reconnoitring  Balloon 
GOING  Aloft. 


BALLOONS   IN  THE  BOER  WAR     9 

The  Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  with  their 
Teutonic  love  of  the  immense,  favour  far  larger 
vessels.  At  the  same  time  the  military  balloon 
section  of  the  German  Army  eclipses  that  of  any 
other  nation,  is  attached  to  the  Intelligence  Depart- 
ment, and  is  under  the  direct  control  of  the  General 
Staff.  Balloon  stations  are  dotted  all  over  the 
country,  including  Heligoland  and  Kiel,  while 
regular  sections  are  attached  to  the  Navy  for 
operating  captive  balloons  from  warships.  Although 
the  Zeppelin  and  aeroplane  forces  have  come  to 
the  front  in  Germany,  and  have  relegated  the  captive 
balloon  somewhat  to  the  limbo  of  things  that  were, 
the  latter  section  has  never  been  disbanded ;  in 
fact,  during  the  present  campaign  it  has  undergone 
a  somewhat  spirited  revival. 

The  South  African  campaign  emphasised  the  value 
of  the  British  balloon  section  of  the  Army,  and 
revealed  services  to  which  it  was  specially  adapted, 
but  which  had  previously  more  or  less  been  ignored. 
The  British  Army  possessed  indifferent  maps  of 
the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal.  This 
lamentable  deficiency  was  remedied  in  great  measure 
by  recourse  to  topographical  photographs  taken 
from  the  captive  balloons.  The  gmdes  thus  ob- 
tained were  found  to  be  of  extreme  value. 

During  the  early  stages  of  the  war  the  hydrogen 
was  shipped  in  cylinders  from  the  homeland, 
but  subsequently  a  manufacturing  plant  of  such 
capacity  as  to  meet  all  requirements  was  established 


10    AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

in  South  Africa.  The  cyHnders  were  charged  at 
this  point  and  dispatched  to  the  scene  of  action, 
so  that  it  became  unnecessary  to  transport  the 
commodity  from  Britain.  The  captive  balloon 
revealed  the  impregnability  of  Spion  Kop,  enabled 
Lord  Roberts  to  ascertain  the  position  of  the  Boer 
guns  at  the  Battle  of  Paardeburg,  and  proved  of 
invaluable  assistance  to  the  forces  of  General  White 
during  the  siege  of  Ladysmith. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  MILITARY  USES   OF  THE   CAPTIVE   BALLOON 

Although  the  captive  balloon  is  recognised  as 
indispensable  in  military  operations,  its  uses  are 
somewhat  limited.  It  can  be  employed  only  in 
comparatively  still  weather.  The  reason  is  obvious. 
It  is  essential  that  the  balloon  should  assume  a 
vertical  line  in  relation  to  its  winding  plant  upon  the 
ground  beneath,  so  that  it  may  attain  the  maximum 
elevation  possible :  in  other  words,  the  balloon 
should  be  directly  above  the  station  below,  so  that 
if  100  yards  of  cable  are  paid  out  the  aerostat  may 
be  100  yards  above  the  ground.  If  a  wind  is  blow- 
ing, the  helpless  craft  is  certain  to  be  caught  thereby 
and  driven  forwards  or  backwards,  so  that  it  assumes 
an  angle  to  its  station.  If  this  become  acute  the 
vessel  will  be  tilted,  rendering  the  position  of  the 
observers  somewhat  precarious,  and  at  the  same  time 
observing  efficiency  will  be  impaired. 

This  point  may  be  appreciated  more  easily  by 
reference  to  the  accompanying  diagram.  Fig.  i. 
A  represents  the  ground  station  and  B  the  position 


12    AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

of  the  captive  balloon  when  sent  aloft  in  calm  weather, 
300  feet  of  cable  being  paid  out.  A  wind  arises 
and  blows  the  vessel  forward  to  the  position  C.  At 
this  point  the  height  of  the  craft  in  relation  to  the 
ground  has  been  reduced,  and  the  reduction  must 


B 


Fig.  I. — Showing  how  Wind  affects  the  Efficiency 
OF  THE  Captive  Balloon. 

A,  B,  the  position  of  the  balloon  in  calm  weather ;  A,  C,  the 
position  when  wind  is  blowing  from  left. 

increase  proportionately  as  the  strength  of  the 
wind  increases  and  forces  the  balloon  still  more 
towards  the  ground.  At  the  same  time,  owing  to 
the  tilt  given  to  the  car,  observation  is  rendered 


EQUIPMENT  OF   BALLOONS        13 

more  difficult  and  eventually  becomes  extremely 
dangerous. 

A  wind,  if  of  appreciable  strength,  develops 
another  and  graver  danger.  Greater  strain  will  be 
imposed  upon  the  cable,  while  if  the  wind  be  gusty, 
there  is  the  risk  that  the  vessel  will  be  torn  away 
from  its  anchoring  rope  and  possibly  lost.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  effective  utilisation  of  a 
captive  balloon  is  completely  governed  by  meteoro- 
logical conditions,  and  often  it  is  impossible  to  use 
it  in  weather  which  exercises  but  little  influence  upon 
dirigibles  or  aeroplanes. 

The  captive  balloon  equipment  comprises  the 
balloon,  together  with  the  observer's  basket,  the 
wire-cable  whereby  it  is  anchored  and  controlled, 
and  the  winding  apparatus.  Formerly  a  steam  engine 
was  necessary  for  the  paying  in  and  out  of  the 
cable,  but  nowadays  this  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  petrol-driven  motor,  an  oil-engine,  or  even  by 
the  engine  of  an  automobile.  The  length  of  cable 
varies  according  to  the  capacity  of  the  balloon  and 
the  maximum  operating  height. 

The  average  British  balloon  is  able  to  lift  about 
290  or  300  pounds,  which  may  be  taken  to  represent 
the  weight  of  two  observers.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  French  and  German  balloons  are  able  to  carry 
four  times  this  weight,  with  the  exception  of  the 
French  auxiharies,  which  are  designed  to  lift  one 
observer  only.  The  balloons  of  the  two  latter 
Powers  have  also  a  greater  maximum  altitude;  it  is 


14    AEROPLANES   AND   DIRIGIBLES 

possible  to  ascend  to  a  height  of  some  2,000  feet 
in  one  of  these. 

The  observing  station  is  connected  with  the 
winding  crew  below  either  by  a  telephone,  or  some 
other  signalling  system,  the  method  practised 
varying  according  to  circumstances.  In  turn  the 
winding  station  is  connected  with  the  officer  in  charge 
of  the  artillery,  the  fire  of  which  the  captive  balloon 
is  directing.  The  balloon  observer  is  generally 
equipped  with  various  instruments,  such  as  tele- 
scope, photographic  cameras,  and  so  forth,  so  as  to  be 
able,  if  necessary,  to  prepare  a  topographical  survey 
of  the  country  below.  By  this  means  the  absence  of 
reliable  maps  may  be  remedied,  or  if  not  regarded 
as  sufficiently  correct  they  may  be  checked  and 
counter- checked  by  the  data  gained  aloft. 

Seeing  that  the  gas  has  to  be  transported  in 
cylinders,  which  are  weighty,  it  is  incumbent  that 
the  waste  of  this  commodity  should  be  reduced  to 
the  minimum.  The  balloon  cannot  be  deflated  at 
night  and  re-inflated  in  the  morning — it  must  be 
maintained  in  the  inflated  condition  the  whole 
time  it  is  required  for  operation. 

There  are  various  methods  of  consummating  this 
end.  One  method  is  to  haul  in  the  balloon  and  to 
peg  it  down  on  all  sides,  completing  the  anchorage 
by  the  attachment  of  bags  filled  with  earth  to  the 
network.  While  this  process  is  satisfactory  in 
calm  weather,  it  is  impracticable  in  heavy  winds, 
which  are  likely  to  spring  up  suddenly.    Consequently 


SUPPLYING  GAS  15 

a  second  method  is  practised.  This  is  to  dig  a 
pit  into  the  ground  of  sufficient  size  to  receive  the 
balloon.  When  the  latter  is  hauled  in  it  is  lowered 
into  this  pit  and  there  pegged  down  and  anchored. 
Thus  it  is  perfectly  safe  during  the  roughest  weather, 
as  none  of  its  bulk  is  exposed  above  the  ground  level. 
Furthermore  it  is  not  a  conspicuous  object  for  the 
concentration  of  hostile  fire. 

In  some  instances,  and  where  the  military  depart- 
ment is  possessed  of  an  elaborate  equipment  such  as 
characterises  the  German  army,  when  reconnaissance 
is  completed  and  the  balloon  is  to  be  removed  to 
another  point,  the  gas  is  pumped  back  into  the 
cylinders  for  further  use.  Such  an  economical 
proceeding  is  pretty  and  well  adapted  to  manoeuvres, 
but  it  is  scarcely  feasible  in  actual  warfare,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  pumping  takes  time. 
Consequently  the  general  procedure,  when  the 
balloon  has  completed  its  work,  is  to  permit  the 
gas  to  escape  into  the  air  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  to  draw  a  fresh  supply  of  gas  from  further 
cyhnders  when  the  occasion  arises  for  re-iniiation. 

Although  the  familiar  spherical  balloon  has  proved 
perfectly  adequate  for  reconnoitring  in  the  British 
and  French  armies,  the  German  authorities  main- 
tained that  it  was  not  satisfactory  in  anything 
but  calm  weather.  Accordingly  scientific  initiative 
was  stimulated  with  a  view  to  the  evolution  of  a 
superior  vessel.  These  endeavours  culminated  in 
the  Parse val-Siegsf eld  captive  balloon,  which   has 


i6    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

a  quaint  appearance.  It  has  the  form  of  a  bulky 
cyHnder  with  hemispherical  extremities.  At  one 
end  of  the  balloon  there  is  a  surrounding  outer  bag, 
reminiscent  of  a  cancerous  growth.  The  lower 
end  of  this  is  open.  This  attachment  serves  the 
purpose  of  a  ballonet.  The  wind  blowing  against 
the  opening,  which  faces  it,  charges  the  ballonet 
with  air.  This  action,  it  is  claimed,  serves  to 
steady  the  main  vessel,  somewhat  in  the  manner 
of  the  tail  of  a  kite,  thereby  enabling  observations 
to  be  made  as  easily  and  correctly  in  rough  as  in 
calm  weather.  The  appearance  of  the  balloon 
while  aloft  is  certainly  curious.  It  appears  to  be 
rearing  up  on  end,  as  if  the  extremity  saddled 
with  the  ballonet  were  weighted. 

British  and  French  captive  balloon  authorities 
are  disposed  to  discount  the  steadying  effect  of 
this  attachment,  and,  indeed,  to  maintain  that  it 
is  a  distinct  disadvantage.  It  may  hold  the  vessel 
steadier  for  the  purpose  of  observation,  but  at  the 
same  time  it  renders  the  balloon  a  steadier  target  for 
hostile  fire.  On  the  other  hand,  the  swaying  of  a 
spherical  balloon  with  the  wind  materially  contri- 
butes to  its  safety.  A  moving  object,  particularly 
when  its  oscillations  are  irregular  and  incalculable, 
is  an  extremely  difficult  object  at  which  to  take 
effective  aim. 

Seeing  that  even  a  small  captive  balloon  is  of 
appreciable  dimensions — from  25  to  33  feet  or  more 
in  diameter — one  might  consider  it  an  easy  object 


ATTACKING  METHODS  17 

to  hit.  But  experience  has  proved  otherwise.  In 
the  first  place  the  colour  of  the  balloon  is  distinctly 
protective.  The  golden  or  yellowish  tinge  harmon- 
ises well  with  the  daylight,  even  in  gloomy  weather, 
while  at  night-time  it  blends  excellently  with  the 
moonlight.  For  effective  observations  a  high  alti- 
tude is  undesirable.  At  a  height  of  600  feet  the 
horizon  is  about  28  miles  from  the  observer,  as 
compared  with  the  3  miles  constituting  the  range 
of  vision  from  the  ground  over  perfectly  flat  country. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  '*  spotter  "  up  aloft 
has  the  command  of  a  considerable  tract. 

Various  ways  and  means  of  finding  the  range  of 
a  captive  balloon  have  been  prepared,  and  tables 
innumerable  are  available  for  committal  to  memory, 
while  those  weapons  especially  designed  for  aerial 
targets  are  fitted  with  excellent  range-finders  and 
other  instruments.  The  Germans,  with  character- 
istic thoroughness,  have  devoted  considerable  atten- 
tion to  this  subject,  but  from  the  results  which  they 
have  achieved  up  to  the  present  this  guiding 
knowledge  appears  to  be  more  spectacular  and 
impressive  than  effective. 

To  put  a  captive  balloon  out  of  action  one  must 
either  riddle  the  envelope,  causing  it  to  leak  like  a 
sieve,  blow  the  vessel  to  pieces,  or  ignite  the  highly 
inflammable  gas  with  which  it  is  inflated.  Individual 
rifle  fire  will  inflict  no  tangible  damage.  A  bullet, 
if  it  finds  its  billet,  will  merely  pass  through  the 
envelope   and   leave   two   small   punctures.    True, 

c 


i8    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

these  vents  will  allow  the  gas  to  escape,  but  this 
action  will  proceed  so  slowly  as  to  permit  the 
vessel  to  remain  aloft  long  enough  to  enable  the 
observer  to  complete  his  work.  A  lucky  rifle 
volley,  or  the  stream  of  bullets  from  a  machine  gun 
may  riddle  the  envelope,  precipitating  a  hurried 
descent,  owing  to  the  greater  number  of  perforations 
through  which  the  gas  is  able  to  escape,  but  as  a 
rule  the  observer  will  be  able  to  land  safely. 

Consequently  the  general  practice  is  to  shatter 
the  aerostat,  and  to  this  end  either  shrapnel,  high 
explosive,  or  incendiary  shells  will  be  used.  The 
former  must  explode  quite  close  to  the  balloon  in  order 
to  achieve  the  desired  end,  while  the  incendiary  shell 
must  actually  strike  it,  so  as  to  fire  the  gas.  The 
high  explosive  shell  may  explode  effectually  some  feet 
away  from  the  vessel,  inasmuch  as  in  this  instance 
dependence  is  placed  upon  the  terrific  concussion 
produced  by  the  explosion  which,  acting  upon 
the  fragile  fabric  of  the  balloon,  brings  about 
a  complete  collapse  of  the  envelope.  If  a  shrapnel 
is  well  placed  and  explodes  immediately  above  the 
balloon,  the  envelope  will  be  torn  to  shreds  and  a 
violent  explosion  of  the  gas  will  be  precipitated. 
But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  extremely  difficult 
to  place  a  shrapnel  shell  so  as  to  consummate  this 
end.  The  range  is  not  picked  up  easily,  while  the 
timing  of  the  fuse  to  bring  about  the  explosion  of 
the  shell  at  the  critical  moment  is  invariably  a 
complex  problem. 


ATTACKS   ON  BALLOONS 


19 


One  favourite  method  of  finding  the  range  of  a 
balloon  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagrams, 
Figs.  2  to  5.  The  artillery  battery  is  at  B  and  the 
captive  balloon,  C,  is  anchored  at  A.  On  either  side 
of  B  and  at  a  specified  distance,  observers  Oj 
and  O2  respectively  are  stationed.  First  a  shell  is 
fired  at  "  long  "  range,  possibly  the  maximum  range 


% 


Fig.  2.— Finding  the  Range  of  a  Captive  Balloon. 
First  Round,  with  Shell  Timed  at  Long  Range. 

(For  explanation  see  text. ) 

of  the  gun.  It  bursts  at  D  (Fig.  2).  As  it  has  burst 
immediately  in  the  line  of  sight  of  B,  but  with  the 
smoke  obscured  by  the  figure  of  the  balloon  C,  it 
is  obvious  to  B  that  the  explosion  has  occurred 
behind  the  objective,  but  at  what  distance  he 
cannot  tell.  To  O^  and  Og,  however,  it  is  seen  to 
have  burst   at   a   considerable  distance   behind  C, 

c  2 


20    AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

though  to  the  former  it  appears  to  have  burst  to  the 
left  and  to  the  second  observer  to  the  right  of  the 
target. 

Another  shell,  at  "  short  "  range,  is  now  fired,  and 
it  bursts  at  E.  The  explosion  takes  place  in  the  line 
of  sight  of  B,  who  knows  that  he  has  fired  short  of 
the  balloon  because  the  latter  is  eclipsed  by  the 
smoke.     But  the  two  observers  see  that  it  is  very 


«c 


\ 


'4n 


\ 


0,  B  02 

Fig.  3.— Finding  the  Range  of  a  Captive  Balloon. 
Second  Round,  with  Shell  Timed  at  Short  Range. 

(For  explanation  see  text.) 


short,  and  here  again  the  explosion  appears  to  O^ 
to  have  occurred  to  the  right  of  the  target,  while  to 
Og  it  has  evidently  burst  to  the  left  of  the  aerostat, 
as  revealed  by  the  relation  of  the  position  of  the 
balloon  to  the  bursting  of  the  shell  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
A  third  round  is  fired,  and  the  shell  explodes  at 
F.  In  this  instance  the  explosion  takes  place  below 
the  balloon.     Both  the  observers  and  the  artillery- 


SHELLING  BALLOONS 


21 


man  concur  in  their  deductions  upon  the  point  at 
which  the  shell  burst  (Fig.  4).     But  the  shell  must 


\ 


\\. 


\ 


\ 


Fig.   4.— Finding  the  Range  of  a  Captive  Balloon. 
Third  Round.     (For  explanation  see  text.) 


X 


\ 


\ 


Fig.  5. — Finding  the  Range  of  a  Captive  Balloon. 
Fourth  Round.     (For  explanation  see  text.) 

explode  above  the  balloon,  and  accordingly  a  fourth 
round  is  discharged  and  the  shell  bursts  at  G  (Fig.  5). 


22    AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

This  appears  to  be  above  the  balloon,  inasmuch  as 
the  lines  of  sight  of  the  two  observers  and  B  corf- 
verge  at  this  point.  But  whether  the  explosion 
occurs  immediately  above  the  vessel  as  is  desired, 
it  is  impossible  to  say  definitely,  because  it  may 
explode  too  far  behind  to  be  effective.  Consequently, 
if  this  shell  should  prove  abortive,  the  practice  is  to 
decrease  the  range  gradually  with  each  succeeding 
round  until  the  explosion  occurs  at  the  critical  point, 
when,  of  course,  the  balloon  is  destroyed.  An 
interesting  idea  of  the  difficulty  of  picking  up  the 
range  of  a  captive  balloon  may  be  gathered  from  the 
fact  that  some  ten  minutes  are  required  to  complete 
the  operation. 

But  success  is  due  more  to  luck  than  judgment. 
In  the  foregoing  explanation  it  is  premised  that  the 
aerial  vessel  remains  stationary,  which  is  an  ex- 
tremely unlikely  contingency.  While  those  upon 
the  ground  are  striving  to  pick  up  the  range,  the 
observer  is  equally  active  in  his  efforts  to  baffle  his 
opponents.  The  observer  follows  each  successive 
round  with  keen  interest,  and  when  the  shells  appear 
to  be  bursting  at  uncomfortably  close  quarters 
naturally  he  intimates  to  his  colleagues  below  that 
he  desires  his  position  to  be  changed,  either  by 
ascending  to  a  higher  point  or  descending.  In 
fact,  he  may  be  content  to  come  to  the  ground. 
Nor  must  the  fact  be  overlooked  that  while  the 
enemy  is  trying  to  place  the  observer  hors  de  combat, 
he  is  revealing  the  position  of  his  artillery,  and  the 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  ATTACK       23 

observer  is  equally  industrious  in  picking  up  the 
range  of  the  hostile  guns  for  the  benefit  of  his  friends 
below. 

When  the  captive  balloon  is  aloft  in  a  wind  the 
chances  of  the  enemy  picking  up  the  range  thereof 
are  extremely  slender,  as  it  is  continually  swinging 
to  and  fro.  While  there  is  always  the  possibility 
of  a  shell  bursting  at  such  a  lucky  moment  as  to 
demolish  the  aerial  target,  it  is  generally  conceded 
to  be  impossible  to  induce  a  shell  to  burst  within 
100  yards  of  a  balloon,  no  matter  how  skilfully  the 
hostile  battery  may  be  operated. 

The  value  of  the  captive  balloon  has  been  demon- 
strated very  strikingly  throughout  the  attack  upon 
the  entrenched  German  positions  in  Flanders.  Owing 
to  the  undulating  character  of  the  dunes  the 
"  spotters  "  upon  the  British  monitors  and  battle- 
ships are  unable  to  obtain  a  sweeping  view  of  the 
country.  Accordingly  captive  balloons  are  sent 
aloft  in  some  cases  from  the  deck  of  the  monitors, 
and  in  others  from  a  suitable  point  upon  the  beach 
itself.  The  aerial  observer  from  his  point  of  vantage 
is  able  to  pick  up  the  positions  of  the  German  forces 
and  artillery  with  ease  and  to  communicate  the 
data  thus  gained  to  the  British  vessels,  although 
subjected  to  heavy  and  continuous  hostile  fire.  The 
difficulty  of  hitting  a  captive  balloon  has  been 
graphically  emphasised,  inasmuch  as  the  German 
artillerists  have  failed  to  bring  down  a  sohtary 
balloon.     On  the  other  hand  the  observer  in  the 


24    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

air  is  able  to  signal  the  results  of  each  salvo  fired 
from  the  British  battleships  as  they  manoeuvre 
at  full  speed  up  and  down  the  coastline,  while  he 
keeps  the  fire  of  the  monitors  concentrated  upon  the 
German  positions  until  the  latter  have  been  rendered 
untenable  or  demolished.  The  accuracy  of  the 
British  gun-fire  has  astonished  even  the  Germans, 
but  it  has  been  directly  attributable  to  the  range- 
finder  perched  in  the  car  of  the  captive  balloon  and 
his  rapid  transmission  of  information  to  the  vessels 
below. 

The  enthusiastic  supporters  of  aerial  navigation 
maintained  that  the  dirigible  and  the  aeroplane 
would  supersede  the  captive  balloon  completely. 
But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  present  conflict  has  estab- 
Ushed  the  value  of  this  factor  more  firmly  than  ever. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  possibility  that  the  captive 
balloon  sections  of  the  belligerents  will  be  disbanded, 
especially  those  which  have  the  fruits  of  experience 
to  guide  them.  The  airship  and  the  aeroplane 
have  accomplished  wonders,  but  despite  their 
achievements  the  captive  balloon  has  fully  sub- 
stantiated its  value  as  a  military  unit  in  its  particular 
field  of  operations. 


CHAPTER   III 

GERMANY'S    RISE   TO   MILITARY   AIRSHIP    SUPREMACY 

Two  incidents  in  the  history  of  aviation  stand  out 
with  exceptional  prominence.  The  one  is  the 
evolution  of  the  Zeppelin  airship — a  story  teeming 
with  romance  and  affording  striking  and  illuminating 
glimpses  of  dogged  perseverance,  grim  determination 
in  the  face  of  repeated  disasters,  and  the  blind 
courageous  faith  of  the  inventor  in  the  creation 
of  his  own  brain.  The  second  is  the  remarkable 
growth  of  Germany's  military  airship  organisation, 
which  has  been  so  rapid  and  complete  as  to  enable 
her  to  assume  supremacy  in  this  field,  and  that 
within  the  short  span  of  a  single  decade. 

The  Zeppehn  has  always  aroused  the  world's 
attention,  although  this  interest  has  fluctuated. 
Regarded  at  first  as  a  wonderful  achievement  of 
genius,  afterwards  as  a  freak,  then  as  the  ready 
butt  for  universal  ridicule,  and  finally  with  awe, 
if  not  with  absolute  terror — such  in  brief  is  the 
history  of  this  craft  of  the  air. 


26    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

Count  von  Zeppelin  can  scarcely  be  regarded 
as  an  ordinary  man.  He  took  up  the  subject  of 
flight  at  an  age  which  the  majority  of  individuals 
regard  as  the  opportune  moment  for  retirement 
from  activity,  and,  knowing  nothing  about  mechanical 
engineering,  he  concentrated  his  energies  upon  the 
study  of  this  science  to  enable  him  to  master  the 
difficulties  of  a  mechanical  character  incidental  to 
the  realisation  of  his  grand  idea.  His  energy  and 
indomitable  perseverance  are  equalled  by  his  ardent 
patriotism,  because,  although  the  Fatherland  dis- 
counted his  idea  when  other  Powers  were  ready  to 
consider  it,  and  indeed  made  him  tempting  offers 
for  the  acquisition  of  his  handiwork,  he  stoutly 
declined  all  such  solicitations,  declaring  that  his 
invention,  if  such  it  may  be  termed,  was  for  his  own 
country  and  none  other. 

Count  von  Zeppelin  developed  his  line  of  study 
and  thought  for  one  reason  only.  As  an  old  cam- 
paigner and  a  student  of  military  affairs  he  realised 
the  shortcomings  of  the  existing  methods  of  scouting 
and  reconnoitring.  He  appreciated  more  than  any 
other  man  of  the  day  perhaps,  that  if  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  an  army  were  provided  with  facilities 
for  gazing  down  upon  the  scene  of  operations,  and 
were  able  to  take  advantage  of  all  the  information 
accruing  to  the  man  above  who  sees  all,  he  would 
hold  a  superior  position,  and  be  able  to  dispose  his 
forces  and  to  arrange  his  plan  of  campaign  to  the 
most  decisive  advantage.     In  other  words,  Zeppelin 


COUNT  VON  ZEPPELIN  27 

conceived  and  developed  his  airship  for  one  field  of 
application  and  that  alone — military  operations. 
Although  it  has  achieved  certain  successes  in  other 
directions  these  have  been  subsidiary  to  the  primary 
intention,  and  have  merely  served  to  emphasise  its 
military  value. 

Von  Zeppelin  was  handicapped  in  his  line  of 
thought  and  investigation  from  the  very  first.  He 
dreamed  big  things  upon  a  big  scale.  The  colossal 
always  makes  a  peculiar  and  irresistible  appeal  to 
the  Teutonic  nature.  So  he  contemplated  the 
perfection  of  a  big  dirigible,  eclipsing  in  every  respect 
anything  ever  attempted  or  likely  to  be  attempted 
by  rival  countries.  Unfortunately,  the  realisation 
of  the  "  colossal  "  entails  an  equally  colossal  financial 
reserve,  and  the  creator  of  this  form  of  airship  for 
years  suffered  from  financial  cramp  in  its  worst 
manifestation.  Probably  it  was  to  the  benefit  of 
the  world  at  large  that  Fortune  played  him  such 
sorry  tricks.  It  retarded  the  growth  of  German 
ambitions  in  one  direction  very  effectively. 

As  is  well  known  Zeppelin  evolved  what  may  be 
termed  an  individual  line  of  thought  in  connection 
with  his  airship  activities.  He  adopted  what  is 
known  as  the  indef ormable  airship  :  that  is  to  say 
the  rigid,  as  opposed  to  the  semi-rigid  and  flexible 
craft.  As  a  result  of  patient  experiment  and  con- 
tinued researches  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  a 
huge  outer  envelope  taking  the  form  of  a  polygonal 
cylinder  with  hemispherical  ends,  constructed  upon 


28    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

substantial  lines  with  a  metallic  skeleton  encased 
within  an  impermeable  skin,  and  charged  with  a 
number  of  smaller  balloon-shaped  vessels  con- 
taining the  lifting  agent — hydrogen  gas — would 
fulfil  his  requirements  to  the  greatest  advantage. 
Model  after  model  was  built  upon  these  lines.  Each 
was  subjected  to  searching  tests  with  the  invariable 
result  attending  such  work  with  models.  Some 
fulfilled  the  expectations  of  the  inventor,  others 
resolutely  declined  to  illustrate  his  reasonings  in 
any  direction. 

The  inevitable  happened.  When  a  promising 
model  was  completed  finally  the  inventor  learned  to 
his  sorrow  what  every  inventor  realises  in  time. 
His  fortune  and  the  resources  of  others  had  been 
poured  down  the  sink  of  experiment.  To  carry  the 
idea  from  the  model  to  the  practical  stage  required 
more  money,  and  it  was  not  forthcoming.  The 
inventor  sought  to  enlist  the  practical  sympathy 
of  his  country,  only  to  learn  that  in  Germany,  as  in 
other  lands,  the  axiom  concerning  the  prophet, 
honour,  and  country  prevails.  No  exuberant  in- 
ventor received  such  a  cold  douche  from  a  Govern- 
ment as  did  Count  Zeppelin  from  the  Prussian 
authorities.  For  two  years  further  work  was 
brought  practically  to  a  standstill :  nothing  could 
be  done  unless  the  sinews  of  war  were  forthcoming. 
His  friends,  who  had  assisted  him  financially  with 
his  models,  now  concluded  that  their  aid  had  been 
misplaced. 


ZEPPELIN'S  EXPERIMENTS        29 

The  inventor,  though  disappointed,  was  by  no 
means  cast  down.  He  clung  tenaciously  to  his  pet 
scheme  and  to  such  effect  that  in  1896  a  German 
Engineering  Society  advanced  him  some  funds  to 
continue  his  researches.  This  support  sufficed  to 
keep  things  going  for  another  two  years,  during 
which  time  a  full-sized  vessel  was  built.  The  grand 
idea  began  to  crystallise  rapidly,  with  the  result 
that  when  a  public  company  was  formed  in  1898, 
sufficient  funds  were  rendered  available  to  enable 
the  first  craft  to  be  constructed.  It  aroused  con- 
siderable attention,  as  well  it  might,  seeing  that  it 
eclipsed  anything  which  had  previously  been 
attempted  in  connection  with  dirigibles.  It  was  no 
less  than  420  feet  in  length,  by  38  feet  in  diameter, 
and  was  fitted  with  two  cars,  each  of  which  carried 
a  sixteen  horse-power  motor  driving  independent 
propellers  rigidly  attached  to  the  body  of  the  vessel. 
The  propellers  were  both  vertical  and  horizontal, 
for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  ship  in  the  two  planes — 
vertical  and  horizontal  respectively. 

The  vessel  was  of  great  scientific  interest,  owing 
to  the  ingenuity  of  its  design  and  construction. 
The  metallic  skeleton  was  built  up  from  aluminium 
and  over  this  was  stretched  the  fabric  of  the  envelope, 
care  being  observed  to  reduce  skin  friction,  as  well 
as  to  achieve  impermeability.  But  it  was  the 
internal  arrangement  of  the  gas-lifting  balloons 
which  provoked  the  greatest  concern.  The  hull 
was    divided    into    compartments,    each    complete 


30    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

in  itself,  and  each  containing  a  small  balloon 
inflated  with  hydrogen.  It  was  sub-division  as 
practised  in  connection  with  vessels  ploughing  the 
water  applied  to  aerial  craft,  the  purpose  being 
somewhat  the  same.  As  a  ship  of  the  seas  will 
keep  afloat  so  long  as  a  certain  number  of  its  sub- 
divisions remain  watertight,  so  would  the  Zeppelin 
keep  aloft  if  a  certain  number  of  the  gas  compart- 
ments retained  their  charges  of  hydrogen.  There 
were  no  fewer  than  seventeen  of  these  gas-balloons 
arranged  in  a  single  line  within  the  envelope.  Beneath 
the  hull  and  extending  the  full  length  of  the  latter 
was  a  passage  which  not  only  served  as  a  corridor 
for  communication  between  the  cars,  but  also 
to  receive  a  weight  attached  to  a  cable  worked 
by  a  winch.  By  the  movement  of  this  weight 
the  bow  or  stern  of  the  vessel  could  be  tilted  to 
assist  ascent  and  descent. 

The  construction  of  the  vessel  subsequently 
proved  to  be  the  easiest  and  most  straightforward 
part  of  the  whole  undertaking.  There  were  other 
and  more  serious  problems  to  be  solved.  How  would 
such  a  monster  craft  come  to  earth  ?  How  could  she 
be  manipulated  upon  the  ground  ?  How  could 
she  be  docked  ?  Upon  these  three  points  previous 
experience  was  silent.  One  German  inventor  who 
likewise  had  dreamed  big  things,  and  had  carried 
them  into  execution,  paid  for  his  temerity  and 
ambitions  with  his  life,  while  his  craft  was  reduced 
to  a  mass  of  twisted  and  torn  metal.     Under  these 


FIRST  ASCENT  OF  A  ZEPPELIN  31 

circumstances  Count  Zeppelin  decided  to  carry  out 
his  flights  over  the  waters  of  the  Bodensee  and  to 
house  his  craft  within  a  floating  dock.  In  this 
manner  two  uncertain  factors  might  be  effectively 
subjugated. 

Another  problem  had  been  ingeniously  overcome. 
The  outer  envelope  presented  an  immense  surface 
to  the  atmosphere,  while  temperature  was  certain 
to  play  an  uncertain  part  in  the  behaviour  of  the 
craft.  The  question  was  to  reduce  to  the  minimum 
the  radiation  of  heat  and  cold  to  the  bags  containing 
the  gas.  This  end  was  achieved  by  leaving  a  slight 
air  space  between  the  inflated  gas  balloons  and  the 
inner  surface  of  the  hull. 

The  first  ascent  was  made  on  July  2nd,  1900,  but 
was  disappointing,  several  breakdowns  of  the 
mechanism  occurring  while  the  vessel  was  in  mid-air, 
which  rendered  it  unmanageable,  although  a  short 
flight  was  made  which  sufficed  to  show  that  an 
independent  speed  of  13  feet  per  second  could  be 
attained.  The  vessel  descended  and  was  made 
fast  in  her  dock,  the  descent  being  effected  safely, 
while  manoeuvring  into  dock  was  successful.  At 
least  three  points  about  which  the  inventor  had  been 
in  doubt  appeared  to  be  solved — ^his  airship  could 
be  driven  through  the  air  and  could  be  steered  ; 
it  could  be  brought  to  earth  safely  ;  and  it  could  be 
docked. 

The  repairs  to  the  mechanism  were  carried  out 
and  on   October  17th  and  21st  of  the  same  year 


32    AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

further  flights  were  made.  By  this  time  certain 
influential  Teuton  aeronautical  experts  who  had 
previously  ridiculed  Zeppehn's  idea  had  made  a 
perfect  volte-face.  They  became  staunch  admirers 
of  the  system,  while  other  meteorological  savants 
participated  in  the  trials  for  the  express  purpose  of 
ascertaining  just  what  the  ship  could  do.  As  a 
result  of  elaborate  trigonometrical  calculations  it 
was  ascertained  that  the  airship  attained  an  indepen- 
dent speed  of  30  feet  per  second,  which  exceeded 
anything  previously  achieved.  The  craft  proved  to 
be  perfectly  manageable  in  the  air,  and  answered 
her  helm,  thus  compljdng  with  the  terms  of  dirigi- 
bility.  The  creator  was  flushed  with  his  triumph, 
but  at  the  same  time  was  doomed  to  experience 
misfortune.  In  its  descent  the  airship  came  to 
"  earth  "  with  such  a  shock  that  it  was  extensively 
damaged.  The  cost  of  repairing  the  vessel  was  so 
heavy  that  the  company  decHned  to  shoulder  the 
liability,  and  as  the  Count  was  unable  to  defray 
the  expense  the  wreck  was  abandoned. 

Although  a  certain  meed  of  success  had  been 
achieved  the  outlook  seemed  very  black  for  the 
inventor.  No  one  had  any  faith  in  his  idea.  He 
made  imploring  appeals  for  further  money,  em- 
barked upon  lecturing  campaigns,  wrote  aviation 
articles  for  the  Press,  and  canvassed  possible  sup- 
porters in  the  effort  to  raise  funds  for  his  next 
enterprise.  Two  years  passed,  but  the  fruits  of  the 
propaganda  were  meagre.     It  was  at  this  juncture, 


THE  EMPEROR  AND   ZEPPELIN    33 

when  everything  appeared  to  be  impossible,  that 
Count  ZeppeUn  discovered  his  greatest  friend.  The 
German  Emperor,  with  an  eye  ever  fixed  upon  new 
developments,  had  followed  Zeppelin's  uphill 
struggle,  and  at  last,  in  1902,  came  to  his  aid  by 
writing  a  letter  which  ran  : — 

"  Since  your  varied  flights  have  been  reported  to 
me  it  is  a  great  pleasure  to  me  to  express  my  acknow- 
ledgment of  your  patience  and  your  labours,  and  the 
endurance  with  which  you  have  pressed  on  through 
manifold  hindrances  till  success  was  near.  The 
advantages  of  your  system  have  given  your  ship 
the  greatest  attainable  speed  and  dirigibility,  and 
the  important  results  you  have  obtained  have 
produced  an  epoch-making  step  forward  in  the 
construction  of  airships  and  have  laid  down  a 
valuable  basis  for  future  experiments." 

This  Imperial  appreciation  of  what  had  been 
accomplished  proved  to  be  the  turning  point  in  the 
inventor's  fortunes.  It  stimulated  financial  support, 
and  the  second  airship  was  taken  in  hand.  But 
misfortune  still  pursued  him.  Accidents  were  of 
almost  daily  occurrence.  Defects  were  revealed 
here  and  weaknesses  somewhere  else.  So  soon  as 
one  trouble  was  overcome  another  made  itself 
manifest.  The  result  was  that  the  whole  of  the 
money  collected  by  his  hard  work  was  expended 
before  the  ship  could  take  to  the  air.  A  further 
crash  and  blasting  of  cherished  hopes  appeared 
imminent,  but  at  this  moment  another  Royal 
personage  came  to  the  inventor's  aid. 

D 


34    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

The  King  of  Wiirtemberg  took  a  personal  interest 
in  his  subject's  uphill  struggle,  and  the  Wiirtemberg 
Government  granted  him  the  proceeds  of  a  lottery. 
With  this  money,  and  with  what  he  succeeded  in 
raising  by  hook  and  by  crook,  and  by  mortgaging 
his  remaining  property,  a  round  £20,000  was 
obtained.  With  this  capital  a  third  ship  was  taken 
in  hand,  and  in  1905  it  was  launched.  It  was  a 
distinct  improvement  upon  its  predecessors.  The 
airship  was  414  feet  in  length  by  38  feet  in  diameter, 
was  equipped  with  17  gas  balloons  having  an  aggre- 
gate capacity  of  367,000  cubic  feet  of  hydrogen,  was 
equipped  with  two  85  horse-power  motors  driving 
four  propellers,  and  displaced  9  tons.  All  the  im- 
perfections incidental  to  the  previous  craft  had  been 
eliminated,  while  the  ship  followed  improved  lines 
in  its  mechanical  and  structural  details. 

The  trials  with  this  vessel  commenced  on  November 
30th,  1905,  but  ill-luck  had  not  been  eluded.  The 
airship  was  moored  upon  a  raft  which  was  to  be 
towed  out  into  the  lake  to  enable  the  dirigible  to 
ascend.  But  something  went  wrong  with  the 
arrangements.  A  strong  wind  caught  the  ungainly 
airship,  she  dipped  her  nose  into  the  water,  and  as  the 
motor  was  set  going  she  was  driven  deeper  into  the 
lake,  the  vessel  only  being  saved  by  hurried  deflation. 

Six  weeks  were  occupied  in  repairs,  but  another 
ascent  was  made  on  January  17th,  1906.  The  trials 
were  fairly  satisfactory,  but  inconclusive.  One  of 
the  motors  went  wrong,  and  the  longitudinal  stability 


LOSS  OF  THIRD   ZEPPELIN         35 

was  found  to  be  indifferent.  The  vessel  was  brought 
down,  and  was  to  be  anchored,  but  the  Fates  ruled 
otherwise.  A  strong  wind  caught  her  during  the 
night  and  she  was  speedily  reduced  to  indistin- 
guishable scrap. 

Despite  catastrophe  the  inventor  wrestled  gamely 
with  his  project.  The  lessons  taught  by  one  disaster 
were  taken  to  heart,  and  arrangements  to  prevent 
the  recurrence  thereof  incorporated  in  the  suc- 
ceeding craft.  Unfortunately,  however,  as  soon  as 
one  defect  was  remedied  another  asserted  itself.  It 
was  this  persistent  revelation  of  the  unexpected 
which  caused  another  period  of  indifference  towards 
his  invention.  Probably  nothing  more  would  have 
been  heard  of  the  Zeppelin  after  this  last  accident 
had  it  not  been  for  the  intervention  of  the 
Prussian  Government  at  the  direct  instigation 
of  the  Kaiser,  who  had  now  taken  Count  Zeppelin 
under  his  wing.  A  State  lottery  was  inaugurated, 
the  proceeds  of  which  were  handed  over  to  the 
indefatigable  inventor,  together  with  an  assurance 
that  if  he  could  keep  aloft  24  hours  without  coming 
to  earth  in  the  meantime,  and  could  cover  450  miles 
within  this  period,  the  Government  would  repay 
the  whole  of  the  money  he  had  lavished  upon  his 
idea,  and  liquidate  all  the  debts  he  had  incurred 
in  connection  therewith. 

Another  craft  was  built,  larger  than  its  pre- 
decessors, and  equipped  with  two  motors  developing 
170   horse-power.      Upon   completion   it   was  sub- 

D  2 


36    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

mitted  to  several  preliminary  flights,  which  were  so 
eminently  successful  that  the  inventor  decided  to 
make  a  trial  trip  under  conditions  closely  analogous 
to  those  imposed  for  the  Government  test.  On 
June  2oth,  1908,  at  8.26  a.m.  the  craft  ascended  and 
remained  aloft  for  12  hours,  during  which  time  it 
made  an  encouraging  circular  tour.  Flushed  with 
this  success,  the  Count  considered  that  the  official 
award  was  within  reach,  and  that  all  his  previous 
disasters  and  misfortunes  were  on  the  eve  of  re- 
demption. 

The  crucial  test  was  essayed  on  August  5th,  1908. 
Accompanied  by  twelve  observers  the  vessel  ascended 
and  travelled  without  incident  for  eight  hours. 
Then  a  slight  mishap  demanded  attention,  but  was 
speedily  repaired,  and  was  ignored  officially  as 
being  too  trivial  to  influence  the  main  issue.  Victory 
appeared  within  measurable  distance  :  the  arduous 
toil  of  many  patient  years  was  about  to  be  rewarded. 
The  airship  was  within  sight  of  home  when  it  had  to 
descend  owing  to  the  development  of  another  motor 
fault.  But  as  it  approached  the  ground.  Nature,  as 
if  infuriated  at  the  conquest,  rose  up  in  rebellion. 
A  sudden  squall  struck  the  unwieldy  monster. 
Within  a  few  moments  it  became  unmanageable, 
and  through  some  inscrutable  cause,  it  caught  fire, 
with  the  result  that  within  a  few  moments  it  was 
reduced  to  a  tangled  mass  of  metallic  framework. 

It  was  a  catastrophe  that  would  have  completely 
vanquished  many  an  inventor,  but  the  Count  was 


TRIUMPH  OF  ZEPPELIN  37 

saved  the  gall  of  defeat.  His  flight,  which  was 
remarkable,  inasmuch  as  he  had  covered  380  miles 
within  24  hours,  including  two  unavoidable  descents, 
struck  the  Teuton  imagination.  The  seeds  so  care- 
fully planted  by  the  "  Most  High  of  Prussia  "  now 
bore  fruit.  The  German  nation  sympathised  with 
the  indomitable  inventor,  appreciated  his  genius, 
and  promptly  poured  forth  a  stream  of  subscriptions 
to  enable  him  to  build  another  vessel.  The  in- 
timation that  other  Powers  had  approached  the 
Count  for  the  acquisition  of  his  idea  became  known 
far  and  wide,  together  with  the  circumstance  that 
he  had  unequivocally  refused  all  offers.  He  was 
striving  for  the  Fatherland,  and  his  unselfish 
patriotism  appealed  to  one  and  all.  Such  an 
attitude  deserved  hearty  national  appreciation,  and 
the  members  of  the  great  German  public  emptied 
their  pockets  to  such  a  degree  that  within  a  few  weeks 
a  sum  of  £300,000  or  $1,500,000  was  voluntarily 
subscribed. 

All  financial  embarrassments  and  distresses  were 
now  completely  removed  from  the  Count's  mind. 
He  could  forge  ahead  untrammelled  by  anxiety  and 
worry.  Another  Zeppelin  was  built  and  it  created 
a  world's  record.  It  remained  aloft  for  38  hours, 
during  which  time  it  covered  690  miles,  and, 
although  it  came  to  grief  upon  alighting,  by  colliding 
with  a  tree,  the  final  incident  passed  unnoticed. 
Germany  was  in  advance  of  the  world.  It  had  an 
airship  which  could  go    anywhere,  irrespective    of 


38    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

climatic  conditions,  and  in  true  Teuton  perspective 
the  craft  was  viewed  from  the  miUtary  standpoint. 
Here  was  a  means  of  obtaining  the  mastery  of  the 
air :  a  formidable  engine  of  invasion  and  aerial 
attack  had  been  perfected.  Consequently  the 
Grand  Idea  must  be  supported  with  unbounded 
enthusiasm.  The  Count  was  hailed  by  his  august 
master  as  *'  The  greatest  German  of  the  twentieth 
century,"  and  in  this  appreciation  the  populace 
whole-heartedly  concurred.  Whether  such  a  pane- 
gyric from  such  an  auspicious  quarter  is  praise 
indeed  or  the  equivalent  of  complete  condemnation, 
history  alone  will  be  able  to  judge,  but  when  one 
reflects,  at  this  moment,  upon  the  achievements  of 
this  aircraft  during  the  present  conflagration,  the 
unprejudiced  will  be  rather  inclined  to  hazard  the 
opinion  that  Imperial  Teuton  praise  is  a  synonym 
for  damnation. 

Although  the  Zeppelin  was  accepted  as  a  perfect 
machine  it  has  never  been  possible  to  disperse  the 
atmosphere  of  disaster  with  which  it  has  been 
enveloped  from  the  first.  Vessel  after  vessel  has 
gone  up  in  smoke  and  flame  :  few  craft  of  this  type 
have  enjoyed  more  than  an  evanescent  existence ; 
and  each  successive  catastrophe  has  proved  more 
terrible  than  its  predecessor.  But  the  Teutonic 
nation  has  been  induced  to  pin  its  whole  faith  on 
this  airship,  notwithstanding  that  the  more  level- 
headed engineers  of  other  countries  have  always 
maintained  the  craft  to  be  a  "  mechanical  mon- 


OTHER  TYPES  39 

strosity  "  condemned  from  its  design  and  principles 
of  construction  to  disaster.  Unshaken  by  this  ad- 
verse criticism,  Germany  rests  assured  that  by  means 
of  its  ZeppeHns  it  will  achieve  that  universal  supre- 
macy which  it  is  convinced  is  its  Destiny. 

This  blind  child-like  faith  has  been  responsible  for 
the  establishment  and  development  of  the  Zeppelin 
factories.'  At  Friedrichshafen  the  facilities  are 
adequate  to  produce  two  of  these  vessels  per  month, 
while  another  factory  of  a  similar  capacity  has  been 
established  at  Berlin.  Unfortunately  such  big  craft 
demand  large  docks  to  accommodate  them,  and 
in  turn  a  large  structure  of  this  character  con- 
stitutes an  easy  mark  for  hostile  attack,  as  the  raiding 
airmen  of  the  Allies  have  proved  very  convincingly. 
But  the  Zeppelin  must  not  be  under-rated. 
Magnificent  performances  have  been  recorded  by 
these  vessels,  such  as  the  round  1,000  miles'  trip  in 
1909,  and  several  other  equally  brilliant  feats  since 
that  date.  It  is  quite  true  that  each  astounding 
achievement  has  been  attended  by  an  equally 
stupendous  accident,  but  that  is  accepted  as  a  mere 
incidental  detail  by  the  faithful  Teutonic  nation. 
Many  vivid  prophecies  of  the  forthcoming  flights  by 
Zeppelin  have  been  uttered,  and  it  is  quite  probable 
that  more  than  one  will  be  fulfilled,  but  success  will 
be  attributable  rather  to  accident  than  design. 

Although  the  Zeppelin  is  the  main  stake  of  the 
German  people  in  matters  pertaining  to  aerial 
conquest,   other  types  of  airships  have  not   been 


40  AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

ignored,  as  related  in  another  chapter.  They  have 
been  fostered  upon  a  smaller  but  equally  effective 
scale.  The  semi-rigid  Parse val  and  Gross  craft 
have  met  with  whole-hearted  support,  since  they 
have  established  their  value  as  vessels  of  the  air, 
which  is  tantamount  to  the  acceptance  of  their 
military  value. 

The  Parseval  is  pronounced  by  experts  to  be  the 
finest  expression  of  aeronautical  engineering  so 
far  as  Teuton  effort  is  concerned.  Certainly  it 
has  placed  many  notable  flights  to  its  credit.  The 
Gross  airship  is  an  equally  serviceable  craft,  its 
lines  of  design  and  construction  closely  following 
those  of  the  early  French  supple  airships.  There 
are  several  other  craft  which  have  become  more  or 
less  recognised  by  the  German  nation  as  substantial 
units  of  war,  such  as  the  Ruthemberg,  Siemens- 
Schukert,  and  so  forth,  all  of  which  have  proved 
their  serviceability  more  or  less  conclusively.  But 
in  the  somewhat  constricted  Teuton  mind  the 
Zeppelin  and  the  Zeppelin  only  represents  the 
ultima  Thule  of  aerial  navigation  and  the  means 
for  asserting  the  universal  character  of  Pan- 
Germanism  as  well  as  "  Kultur." 


CHAPTER   IV 

AIRSHIPS  OF  WAR 

So  much  has  been  said  and  written  concerning 
the  ZeppeHn  airship,  particularly  in  its  military 
aspect,  that  all  other  developments  in  this  field 
have  sunk  into  insignificance  so  far  as  the  general 
public  is  concerned.  The  Zeppelin  dirigible  has 
come  to  be  generally  regarded  as  the  one  and  only 
form  of  practical  light er-than-air  type  of  aircraft. 
Moreover,  the  name  has  been  driven  home  with 
such  effect  that  it  is  regarded  as  the  generic  term 
for  all  German  airships. 

These  are  grievous  fallacies.  The  Zeppelin  is 
merely  one  of  a  variety  of  types,  even  in  Germany, 
although  at  the  moment  it  probably  ranks  as  the 
solitary  survivor  of  the  rigid  system  of  construction. 
At  one  time,  owing  to  the  earnestness  with  which 
the  advantages  of  this  form  of  design  were  discussed, 
and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  Zeppelin  certainly 
appeared  to  triumph  when  all  other  designs  failed, 
Great  Britain  was  tempted  to  embrace  the  rigid 
form  of  construction.     The  building  of  an  immense 

4« 


42    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

vessel  of  this  class  was  actively  supported  and  it 
was  aptly  christened  the  "  May-fly."  Opponents 
of  the  movement  tempered  their  emphatic  condem- 
natory criticism  so  far  as  to  remark  that  it  may 
fly,  but  as  events  proved  it  never  did.  The  colossal 
craft  broke  its  back  before  it  ever  ventured  into 
the  air,  and  this  solitary  experience  proving  so 
disastrous,  the  rigid  form  of  construction  was 
abandoned  once  and  for  all.  The  venture  was  not 
in  vain  ;  it  brought  home  to  the  British  authorities 
more  convincingly  than  anything  else  that  the 
Zeppelin  was  a  mechanical  monstrosity.  The  French 
never  even  contemplated  the  construction  of  such 
a  craft  at  that  time,  estimating  it  at  its  true  value, 
and  the  British  failure  certainly  served  to  support 
French  antagonism  to  the  idea.  Subsequently, 
however,  an  attempt  at  rigid  construction  was 
made  in  France  with  the  "  Spiess  "  airship,  mainly 
as  a  concession  to  public  clamour. 

Even  in  Germany  itself  the  defects  of  the  Zeppelin 
were  recognised  and  a  decided  effort  to  eliminate 
them  was  made  by  Professor  Schiitte  in  co-operation 
with  a  manufacturer  of  Mannheim  named  Lanz. 
The  joint  product  of  their  ambitions,  the  Schiitte- 
Lanz,  is  declared  to  be  superior  to  the  Zeppelin, 
but  so  far  it  has  failed  to  justify  any  of  the  claims 
of  its  designers.  This  vessel,  which  also  favours 
the  colossal,  is  likewise  of  the  rigid  type,  but  realising 
the  inherent  dangers  accruing  from  the  employment 
of  metal  for  the  framework,  its  constructors  have 


,  ^   ,    '    ,  c   .  -.  •    » 


German  Airshh"  of  the  Schutte-Lanz  type  in 
Course  of  Construction. 


3  =^ 


THE  SHtJTTE-LANZ  43 

used  wood,  reinforced  and  strengthened  where 
necessary  by  metallic  angle-iron,  plates,  and  bracing ; 
this  utilisation  of  metal  is,  however,  carried  out  very 
sparingly.  The  first  vessel  of  this  class  was  a  huge 
failure,  while  subsequent  craft  have  not  proved 
much  more  successful. 

In  fact,  one  of  the  largest  German  airships  ever 
designed,  L4,  is,  or  rather  was,  a  Schiitte-Lanz, 
with  a  capacity  of  918,000  cubic  feet,  but  over 
6,000  pounds  lighter  than  a  Zeppelin  of  almost 
similar  dimensions.  I  say  "  was  "  since  L4  is  no 
more.  The  pride  of  its  creators  evinced  a  stronger 
preference  for  Davy  Jones'  Locker  than  its  designed 
realm.  Yet  several  craft  of  this  type  have  been 
built  and  have  been  mistaken  for  Zeppelins  owing 
to  the  similarity  of  the  broad  principles  of  design 
and  their  huge  dimensions.  In  one  vital  respect 
they  are  decidedly  inferior  to  their  contemporary 
— they  are  not  so  speedy. 

The  most  successful  of  the  German  lighter-than-air 
machines  are  those  known  respectively  as  the  semi- 
rigid and  non-rigid  types,  the  best  examples  of  which 
are  the  Gross  and  Parse val  craft.  Virtually  they  are 
Teutonic  editions  of  the  successful  French  craft  of 
identical  design  by  which  they  were  anticipated. 
The  Lebaudy  is  possibly  the  most  famous  of  the 
French  efforts  in  this  direction.  The  gas-bag  has  an 
asymmetrical  shape,  and  is  pointed  at  both  ends, 
although  the  prow  is  blunter  or  rounder  than  the 
stern.     The  gas-bag  comprises  a  single  chamber  for 


44    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

the  inflating  agent,  the  distended  shape  of  the 
envelope  being  sustained  by  means  of  an  air-ballonet. 
By  varying  the  contents  of  the  latter  through  the 
agency  of  a  pump  the  tension  of  the  gas  in  the  lifting 
envelope  can  be  maintained,  and  the  shape  of  the 
inflated  balloon  preserved  under  all  conditions. 

Beneath  the  gas-bag  is  a  long  strengthened  girder, 
and  from  this  in  turn  the  car  is  suspended.  It  is 
the  introduction  of  this  rigid  girder  which  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  descriptive  generic  term  of  "  semi- 
rigid." On  the  other  hand  the  "  non-rigid  '*  type 
may  be  roughly  described  as  a  pisciform  balloon 
fitted  with  propelUng  machinery,  inasmuch  as  the 
car  containing  the  driving  machinery  is  suspended 
from  the  balloon  in  the  manner  of  the  car  in  the 
ordinary  drifting  vessel.  So  far  as  the  French 
effort  is  concerned  the  Bayard-Clement  type  is  the 
best  example  of  the  non-rigid  system  ;  it  is  repre- 
sented in  Germany  by  the  Parseval  class. 

The  Gross  airship  has  been  definitely  adopted  as  a 
military  machine  by  the  German  authorities,  and 
figures  in  the  "M"  class.  The  "  M-IV "  com- 
pleted in  1913  is  the  largest  of  this  type,  and  differs 
from  its  prototypes  in  that  it  carries  two  cars, 
each  fitted  with  motors,  whereas  the  earlier  machines 
were  equipped  with  a  single  gondola  after  the  French 
pattern.  This  vessel  measures  320  feet  in  length, 
has  a  maximum  diameter  of  44^  feet,  displaces  13 
tons,  and  is  fitted  with  motors  det^eloping  450 
horse-power,  which  is  sufficient  to  give  it  a  speed  of 


THE  PARSEVAL  45 

47  miles  per  hour.  This  vessel  represents  a  huge 
advance  upon  its  predecessors  of  this  design,  inas- 
much as  the  latter  were  about  245  feet  in  length  by 
36J  feet  in  diameter,  and  displaced  only  six  tons, 
while  the  single  car  was  provided  with  a  motor 
developing  only  150  horse-power,  the  speed  being 
28  miles  per  hour.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  a  huge 
development  has  suddenly  taken  place,  a  result  due 
no  doubt  to  the  co-operation  of  the  well-known 
engineer  Basenach.  The  "  M-IV "  is  essentially 
an  experiment  and  great  secrecy  has  been  maintained 
in  regard  to  the  trials  which  have  been  carried  out 
therewith,  the  authorities  merely  vouchsafing  the  fact 
that  the  airship  has  proved  completely  successful 
in  every  respect ;  conclusive  testimony  of  this  is 
offered  by  the  inclusion  of  the  vessel  in  the  active 
aerial  fleet  of  Germany. 

But  it  is  the  Parseval  which  is  regarded  as  the 
finest  type  of  airship  flying  the  German  flag.  This 
vessel  is  the  product  of  slow  evolution,  for  it  is 
admitted  to  be  a  power-driven  balloon.  Even  the 
broad  lines  of  the  latter  are  preserved,  the  shape 
being  that  of  a  cylinder  with  rounded  ends.  It  is 
the  direct  outcome  of  the  "  Drachen-Balloon,'* 
perfected  by  Parseval  and  Siegsfeld,  the  captive 
balloon  which  is  an  indispensable  part  of  the  German 
military  equipment. 

The  complete  success  of  the  suspension  system  in 
this  captive  balloon  prompted  Parseval  to  continue 
his  researches  and  experiments  in  regard  to  the 


46    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

application  of  power  to  the  vessel,  so  as  to  induce 
it  to  move  independently  of  the  wind.  The  sus- 
pension system  and  the  car  are  the  outstanding 
features  of  the  craft.  It  is  non-rigid  in  the  strictest 
interpretation  of  the  term,  although,  owing  to  the 
incorporation  of  the  steadying  hollow  "  mattress  *' 
(as  it  is  called  by  its  inventor),  the  strength  of 
the  suspension  system,  and  the  substantial  character 
of  the  car,  it  conveys  an  impression  of  great  solidity. 
The  thinnest  rope,  both  manilla  and  steel,  in  the 
suspension  system  is  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger, 
while  the  car,  measuring  30  feet  in  length  by  6  feet 
in  width,  carried  out  in  wood,  is  a  striking  example 
of  the  maximum  of  strength  with  the  minimum  of 
weight,  being  as  steady  and  as  solid  as  a  boat's  deck. 
The  propellers  are  collapsible,  although  in  the  latest 
craft  of  this  class  they  are  semi-rigid. 

The  mechanical  equipment  is  also  interesting. 
There  are  two  propellers,  and  two  motors,  each 
nominally  driving  one  propeller.  But  should  one 
motor  break  down,  or  motives  of  economy,  such  as 
husbanding  of  fuel,  render  it  advisable  to  run  upon 
one  engine,  then  the  two  propellers  may  be  driven 
by  either  of  the  motors. 

The  inventor  has  perfected  an  ingenious,  simple, 
and  highly  efficient  coupling  device  to  attain  this 
end,  but  to  ensure  that  the  propeller  output  is  of 
the  maximum  efficiency  in  relation  to  the  engine, 
the  pitch  of  the  propellers  may  be  altered  and  even 
reversed  while  the  engine  is  running.     When  one 


THE  PARSEVAL  47 

motor  only  is  being  used,  the  pitch  is  lowered  until 
the  propellers  revolve  at  the  speed  which  they  would 
attain  if  both  engines  were  in  operation.  This 
adjustment  of  the  propeller  pitch  to  the  most 
economical  engine  revolutions  is  a  distinctive  char- 
acteristic, and  contributes  to  the  efficiency  and 
reliability  of  the  Parseval  dirigible  to  a  very  pro- 
nounced degree. 

Steering  in  the  vertical  plane  is  also  carried  out 
upon  distinctive  lines.  There  are  no  planes  for 
vertical  steering,  but  movement  is  accomplished 
by  tilting  the  craft  and  thus  driving  the  gas  from 
one  end  of  the  balloon  to  the  other.  This  is  effected 
by  the  manipulation  of  the  air-ballonets,  one  of 
which  is  placed  at  the  prow  and  stern  of  the  gas 
bag  respectively.  If  it  is  desired  to  descend  the 
gas  is  driven  from  the  forward  to  the  after  end  of 
the  envelope,  merely  by  inflating  the  bow  ballonet 
with  air  by  means  of  a  pump  placed  in  the  car. 
If  ascent  is  required,  the  after-ballonet  is  inflated, 
thereby  driving  the  gas  to  the  forward  end  of  the 
balloon,  the  buoyancy  of  which  is  thus  increased. 
The  outstanding  feature  of  the  "  Drachen-Balloon  " 
is  incorporated  in  the  airship.  This  is  the  auto- 
matic operation  of  the  safety  valve  on  the  gas-bag 
directly  by  the  air  ballonet s.  If  these  ballonets 
empty  owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  gas  within  the 
envelope,  a  rope  system  disposed  within  the  balloon 
and  connecting  the  ballonets  and  the  gas-valve 
at  the  top  is  stretched  taut,  thereby  opening  the 


48     AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

gas- valve.     In  this  manner  the  gas-pressure  becomes 
reduced  until  the  ballonets  are  enabled  to  exercise 
their  intended  function.    This  is  a  safety  precaution  ^ 
of  inestimable  value. 

The  Parseval  is  probably  the  easiest  dirigible  to 
handle,  inasmuch  as  it  involves  no  more  skill  or 
knowledge  than  that  required  for  an  ordinary  free 
balloon.  Its  movements  in  the  vertical  plane  are 
not  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  aeroplane,  inasmuch 
as  ascent  and  descent  are  normally  conducted  in  a 
"  screwing  "  manner,  the  only  exception  being  of 
course  in  abrupt  descent  caused  by  the  ripping 
of  the  emergency- valve.  On  one  occasion,  it  is 
stated,  one  of  the  latest  machines  of  this  type, 
when  conducting  experimental  flights,  absolutely 
refused  to  descend,  producing  infinite  amusement 
both  among  the  crowd  and  those  on  board. 

The  development  of  the  Parseval  is  directly 
attributable  to  the  influence  and  intimate  interest 
of  the  Kaiser,  and  undoubtedly  this  represents 
the  wisest  step  he  ever  made  in  the  realm  of  aero- 
nautics. It  certainly  has  enabled  the  German 
military  machine  to  become  possessed  of  a  significant 
fleet  of  what  may  be  described  as  a  really  efficient 
and  reliable  type  of  dirigible.  The  exact  number 
of  military  Parsevals  in  commission  is  unknown, 
but  there  are  several  classes  thereof,  in  the  nature 
of  aerial  cruisers  and  vedettes. 

The  largest  and  most  powerful  class  are  those 
known  as  the  B  type,  measuring  about  240  feet 


PARSEVAL  VEDETTES  49 

in  length  by  40  feet  maximum  diameter,  of  223,000 
cubic  feet  capacity,  and  fitted  with  two  motors 
and  two  propellers.  This  vessel  carries  about 
10  passengers,  can  climb  to  a  maximum  height  of 
approximately  8,500  feet,  and  is  capable  of  remaining 
in  the  air  for  twenty  hours  upon  a  single  fuel  charge. 
While  this  is  the  largest  and  most  serviceable  type 
of  Parseval  designed  for  military  duties,  there  is 
another,  the  A  class,  200  feet  in  length  with  accom- 
modation for  six  passengers  in  addition  to  the  crew 
of  three,  which  is  capable  of  attaining  a  maximum 
altitude  of  6,700  feet,  and  has  an  endurance  capacity 
of  15  hours.  This  class  also  is  fitted  with  twin  pro- 
pellers and  motors.  In  addition  there  are  the  C  and 
E  classes,  carrying  from  four  to  eight  passengers, 
while  the  vedettes  are  represented  by  the  D  and  F 
classes,  which  have  a  maximum  altitude  of  2,000 
feet  and  can  remain  aloft  for  only  five  hours  upon  a 
single  fuel  charge.  These  smaller  vessels,  however, 
have  the  advantage  of  requiring  only  one  or  two 
men  to  handle  them.  The  present  military  Parseval 
dirigible  is  made  in  one  of  these  five  standardised 
classes,  experience  having  established  their  efficiency 
for  the  specified  military  services  for  which  they  are 
built.  In  point  of  speed  they  compare  favourably 
with  the  latest  types  of  Zeppelin,  the  speeds  of  the 
larger  types  ranging  from  32  to  48  miles  per  hour 
with  a  motor  effort  of  360  to  400  horse-power. 

So  far  as  the  French  airships  of  war  are  concerned, 
the  fleet  is  somewhat  heterogeneous,  although  the 

E 


50    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

non-rigid  type  prevails.  The  French  aerial  navy  is 
represented  by  the  Bayard-Clement,  Astra,  Zodiac, 
and  the  Government-built  machines.  Although 
the  rigid  type  never  has  met  with  favour  in  France, 
there  is  yet  a  solitary  example  of  this  system  of 
construction — the  Spiess,  which  is  460  feet  in  length 
by  47  feet  in  diameter  and  has  a  displacement  of 
20  tons.  The  semi-rigid  craft  are  represented  by 
the  Lebaudy  type,  the  largest  of  which  measures 
293  feet  in  length  by  51  feet  in  diameter,  and  has 
a  displacement  of  10  tons. 

One  may  feel  disposed  to  wonder  why  the  French 
should  be  apparently  backward  in  this  form  of  aerial 
craft,  but  this  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
era  of  experiment  had  not  been  concluded  at  the 
time  war  was  declared,  with  the  result  that  it  has 
been  somewhat  difficult  to  determine  which  type 
would  meet  the  military  requirements  of  the  country 
to  the  best  advantage.  Moreover,  the  French 
military  authorities  evinced  a  certain  disposition 
to  relegate  the  dirigible  to  a  minor  position,  con- 
vinced that  it  had  been  superseded  by  the  heavier- 
than-air  machine.  Taken  on  the  whole,  the  French 
airship  fleet  is  inferior  to  the  German  in  point  of 
speed,  if  not  numerically,  but  this  deficiency  is 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  skill  and  ability 
of  the  men  manning  their  craft,  who  certainly  are 
superior  to  their  contemporaries  in  Germany, 
combined  with  the  proved  character  of  such  craft 
as  are  in  service. 


BRITISH  AIRSHIPS  51 

The  same  criticism  may  be  said  to  apply  to  Great 
Britain.  That  country  was  backward  in  matters 
pertaining  to  the  airship,  because  its  experiments 
were  carried  out  spasmodically  while  dependence 
was  reposed  somewhat  too  much  upon  foreign  effort. 
The  British  airships  are  small  and  of  low  speed 
comparatively  speaking.  Here  again  it  was  the 
advance  of  the  aeroplane  which  was  responsible  for 
the  manifestation  of  a  somewhat  indifferent  if  not 
lethargic  feeling  towards  the  airship.  Undoubtedly 
the  experiments  carried  out  in  Great  Britain  were 
somewhat  disappointing.  The  one  and  only  attempt 
to  out-Zeppehn  the  ZeppeHn  resulted  in  disaster  to 
the  craft  before  she  took  to  the  air,  while  the  smaller 
craft  carried  out  upon  far  less  ambitious  lines  were 
not  inspiritingly  successful.  Latterly  the  non-rigid 
system  has  been  embraced  exclusively,  the  craft 
being  virtually  mechanically  driven  balloons.  They 
have  proved  efiicient  and  reliable  so  far  as  they  go, 
but  it  is  the  personal  element  in  this  instance  also 
which  has  contributed  so  materially  to  any  successes 
achieved  with  them. 

But  although  Great  Britain  and  France  apparently 
lagged  behind  the  Germans,  appreciable  enterprise 
was  manifested  in  another  direction.  The  airship 
was  not  absolutely  abandoned  :  vigilance  was  main- 
tained for  a  superior  type  of  craft.  It  was  an 
instance  of  weighing  the  advantages  against  the 
disadvantages  of  the  existing  types  and  then  evolving 
for  a  design  which  should  possess  the  former  without 

E  2 


52    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

any  of  the  latter.  This  end  appears  to  be  achieved 
with  the  Astra  type  of  dirigible,  the  story  of  the 
development  of  which  offers  an  interesting  chapter 
in  the  annals  of  aeronautics. 

In  all  lighter-than-air  machines  the  resistance  to 
the  air  offered  by  the  suspension  ropes  is  consider- 
able, and  the  reduction  of  this  resistance  has  proved 
one  of  the  most  perplexing  problems  in  the  evolution 
of  the  dirigible.  The  air  is  broken  up  in  such  a 
manner  by  the  ropes  that  it  is  converted  into  a  brake 
or  drag  with  the  inevitable  result  that  the  speed 
undergoes  a  severe  diminution.  A  full-rigged  air- 
ship such  as  the  Parseval,  for  instance,  may  present 
a  picturesque  appearance,  but  it  is  severely  un- 
scientific, inasmi^ph  as  if  it  were  possible  to  eliminate 
or  to  reduce  the  air-resistance  offered  by  the  ropes, 
the  speed  efficiency  might  be  raised  by  some  sixty 
per  cent,  and  that  without  any  augmentation  of  the 
propelling  effort.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Zeppelin 
solved  this  vexatious  problem  unconsciously.  In 
his  monster  craft  the  resistance  to  the  air  is  re- 
duced to  a  remarkable  degree,  which  explains 
why  these  vessels,  despite  all  their  other  defects, 
are  able  to  show  such  a  turn  of  speed. 

It  was  this  feature  of  the  ZeppeHn  which  induced 
Great  Britain  to  build  the  May-fly  and  which 
likewise  induced  the  French  Government  to  stimu- 
late dirigible  design  and  construction  among  native 
manufacturers,  at  the  same  time,  however,  insisting 
that  such  craft  should  be  equal  at  least  in  speed  to 


SENOR  TORRES  53 

the  Zeppelins.  The  response  to  this  invitation  was 
the  Spiess,  which  with  its  speed  of  45  miles  per 
hour  ranked,  until  1914,  as  one  of  the  fastest 
dirigibles  in  the  French  service. 

In  the  meantime  a  Spanish  engineer,  Sen  or 
Torres,  had  been  quietly  working  out  a  new  idea. 
He  realised  the  shortcomings  of  the  prevailing  types 
of  airships  some  eleven  years  ago,  and  unostenta- 
tiously and  painstakingly  set  out  to  eliminate  them 
by  the  perfection  of  a  new  type  of  craft.  He  per- 
fected his  idea,  which  was  certainly  novel,  and  then 
sought  the  assistance  of  the  Spanish  Government. 
But  his  fatherland  was  not  adapted  to  the  prosecution 
of  the  project.  He  strove  to  induce  the  authorities  to 
permit  even  a  small  vessel  to  be  built,  but  in  vain. 
He  then  approached  the  French  Astra  Company.  His 
ambition  was  to  build  a  vessel  as  large  as  the  current 
Zeppelin,  merely  to  emphasise  the  value  of  his 
improvement  upon  a  sufficiently  large  scale,  and  to 
enable  comparative  data  concerning  the  two  designs 
to  be  obtained.  But  the  bogey  of  expense  at  first 
proved  insuperable.  However,  the  French  company, 
decided  to  give  the  invention  a  trial,  and  to  this  end 
a  small  "  vedette "  of  about  53,000  cubic  feet 
displacement  was  built. 

Although  an  unpretentious  little  vessel,  it  certainly 
served  to  emphasise  the  importance  of  the  Torres 
idea.  It  was  pitted  against  the  "  Colonel  Renard," 
the  finest  ship  at  that  time  in  the  French  aerial 
service,   which  had   proved   the   fastest   airship  in 


54    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

commission,  and  which  also  was  a  product  of  the 
Astra  Company.  But  this  fine  craft  was  completely 
outclassed  by  the  puny  Astra-Torres. 

The  builders  and  the  inventor  were  now  addition- 
ally anxious  to  illustrate  more  emphatically  the 
features  of  this  design  and  to  build  a  far  larger 
vessel.  The  opportunity  was  offered  by  the  British 
Government,  which  had  been  following  the  experi- 
ments with  the  small  Astra-Torres  in  France.  An 
order  was  given  for  a  vessel  of  282,500  cubic  feet 
displacement ;  in  this  instance  it  was  ranged  against 
another  formidable  rival — the  Parse val.  But  the 
latter  also  failed  to  hold  its  own  against  the  Spanish 
invention,  inasmuch  as  the  Astra-Torres  built  for 
the  British  authorities  exceeded  a  speed  of  50  miles 
per  hour  in  the  official  tests.  This  vessel  is  still 
doing  valuable  duty,  being  attached  to  the  British 
air-service  in  France. 

The  achievements  of  the  British  vessel  were  not 
lost  upon  the  French  Government,  which  forthwith 
placed  an  order  for  a  huge  vessel  of  812,200  cubic 
feet  capacity,  equipped  with  motors  developing 
1,000  horse-power,  which  it  was  confidently  expected 
would  enable  a  speed  of  60  miles  per  hour  to  be 
attained.  Thus  France  would  be  able  to  meet  the 
Germans  upon  fairly  level  terms,  inasmuch  as  the 
speed  of  the  latest  Zeppelins  does  not  exceed  60 
miles  per  hour.  So  confident  were  the  authorities 
that  a  second  order  for  an  even  larger  vessel  was 
placed  before  the  first  large  craft  was  completed. 


t : i\. '  ■'■ 


• ,*  a  '    ••* 


V.' ■: }■<):''' y-' 


sAji*'i«?-"M^ 


<i  ♦     u- 


THE  ASTRA-TORRES  AIRSHIP     55 

This  latter  vessel  is  larger  than  any  Zeppelin  yet 
built,  seeing  that  it  displaces  38  tons,  and  is  fitted 
with  motors  developing  1,000  horse-power.  It  has 
recently  been  completed,  and  although  the  results 
of  the  trials,  as  well  as  the  dimensions  of  the  craft 
have  not  been  published,  it  is  well  known  that  the 
speed  has  exceeded  60  miles  per  hour,  so  that  France 
now  possesses  the  speediest  dirigible  in  the  world. 
The  Torres  invention  has  been  described  as 
wonderful,  scientifically  perfect  and  extremely 
simple.  The  vessel  belongs  to  the  non-rigid  class, 
but  the  whole  of  the  suspension  system  is  placed 
within  the  gas-bag,  so  that  the  air-resistance  offered 
by  ropes  is  virtually  eliminated  in  its  entirety,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  practically  no  ropes  are 
placed  outside  the  envelope.  The  general  principle 
of  design  may  be  gathered  from  the  accompanying 
diagram  (Fig.  6).  It  is  as  if  three  sausage-shaped 
balloons  were  disposed  pyramidally — two  lying  side  by 
side  with  one  super-imposed,  with  the  bags  connected 
at  the  points  where  the  circular  sections  come  into 
contact.  Thus  the  external  appearance  of  the 
envelope  is  decidedly  unusual,  comprising  three 
symmetrical  ridges.  At  the  points  where  the  three 
bags  come  into  contact  cloth  bands  are  stretched 
across  the  arcs,  thereby  forming  a  cord.  The 
suspension  system  is  attached  to  the  upper  corners 
of  the  inverted  triangle  thus  formed,  and  converges 
in  straight  lines  through  the  gas  space.  The  bracing 
terminates  in  collecting  rings  from  which  a  short 


S6    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

vertical  cable  extends  downwards  through  a  special 
accordion  sleeve  to  pass  through  the  lower  wall  of 
the  envelope.  These  sleeves  are  of  special  design, 
the  idea  being  to  permit  the  gas  to  escape  under 
pressure  arising  from  expansion  and  at  the  same 


Fig.  6. — Section  through  Torres  Type  of  Dirigible 
SHOWING  Form  of  Design  and  Construction. 

A,  A,  A,  envelope ;  B,  B,  B,  cloth  bands  ; 
C,  C,  suspension  ropes. 

time  to  provide  ample  play  for  the  cable  which  is 
necessary  in  a  flexible  airship. 

This  cable  emerges  from  the  envelope  only  at  the 
point  or  points  where  the  car  or  cars  is  or  are  placed. 


THE  ASTRA-TORRES  AIRSHIP     57 

In  the  British  airship  of  this  type  there  is  only  one 
car,  but  the  larger  French  vessels  are  equipped  with 
two  cars  placed  tandem- wise.  The  vertical  cable, 
after  extending  downwards  a  certain  distance,  is 
divided,  one  rope  being  attached  to  one,  and  the 
second  to  the  other  side  of  the  car.  The  two-bladed 
propellers  are  disposed  on  either  side  of  the  car,  in 
each  of  which  a  500  horse-power  motor  is  placed. 

The  Astra-Torres  type  of  dirigible  may  be  said  to 
represent  the  latest  expression  in  airship  design  and 
construction.  The  invention  has  given  complete 
satisfaction,  and  has  proved  strikingly  successful. 
The  French  Government  has  completed  arrange- 
ments for  the  acquisition  of  larger  and  more  power- 
ful vessels  of  this  design,  being  now  in  the  position 
to  contest  every  step  that  is  made  by  Germany  in 
this  field.  The  type  has  also  been  embraced  by  the 
Russian  military  authorities.  The  Astra-Torres 
airship  has  a  rakish  appearance,  and  although  the 
lines  of  the  gas-bag  are  admitted  to  increase  frictional 
resistance,  this  is  regarded  as  a  minor  defect, 
especially  when  the  many  advantages  of  the  invention 
are  taken  into  consideration. 


CHAPTER   V 

Germany's  aerial  dreadnought  fleet 

Although  Germany,  as  compared  with  France, 
was  relatively  slow  to  recognise  the  immense 
possibilities  of  aircraft,  particularly  dirigibles,  in 
the  military  sense,  once  the  Zeppelin  had  received 
the  well-wishes  of  the  Emperor  William,  Teuton 
activities  were  so  pronounced  as  to  enable  the 
leeway  to  be  made  up  within  a  very  short  while. 
While  the  Zeppelin  commanded  the  greatest  attention 
owing  to  the  interesting  co-operation  of  the  German 
Emperor,  the  other  types  met  with  official  and  royal 
recognition  and  encouragement  as  already  mentioned. 
France,  which  had  held  premier  position  in  regard 
to  the  aerial  fleet  of  dirigibles  for  so  long,  was  com- 
pletely out-classed,  not  only  in  dimensions  but  also 
in  speed,  as  well  as  radius  of  action  and  strategical 
distribution  of  the  aerial  forces. 

The  German  nation  forged  ahead  at  a  great  pace 
and  was  able  to  establish  a  distinct  supremacy,  at 
least  on  paper.  In  the  light  of  recent  events  it  is 
apparent    that    the    German    military    authorities 

58 


THE  FRENCH  AIR  FLEET         59 

realised  that  the  dawn  of  "  The  Day  "  was  approach- 
ing rapidly,  and  that  it  behoved  them  to  be  as  fully 
prepared   in   the   air   as   upon   the   land.     It   was 
immaterial  that  the  Zeppelin  was  the  synonym  for 
disaster.     By    standardisation    its    cost    could    be 
reduced    while    construction    could    be    expedited. 
Furthermore,  when  the  matter  was  regarded  in  its 
broadest    aspect,    the    fact    was    appreciated   that 
forty  Zeppelins  could  be  built  at  the  cost  of  one 
super-Dreadnought,    so    that    adequate   allowance 
could  be   made  for  accidents  now  and  then,  since 
a  Zeppelin  catastrophe,  no  matter  how  complete, 
it  may  be,  is  regarded  by  the  Teuton  as  a  mere 
incident  inseparable  from  progressive  development. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year  19 14  France  relied 
upon  being  strengthened  by  a  round  dozen  new 
dirigibles.     Seven  of  these  were  to  be  of  20,000  cubic 
metres'  capacity  and  possessed  of  a  speed  of  47  miles 
per  hour.     While  the  existing  fleet  was  numerically 
strong,  this  strength  was  more  apparent  than  real, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  a  large  number  of  craft 
were   in   dry-dock   undergoing  repair   or   overhaul 
while  many  of  the  units  were  merely  under  test 
and  could  not  be  regarded  therefore  as  in  the  effective 
fleet.     True,  there  were  a  certain  number  of  private 
craft  which  were  liable  to  be  commandeered  when 
the  occasion  arose,  but  they  could  not  be  considered 
as  decided    acquisitions  for  the  simple  reason  that 
many  were  purely  experimental  units. 

Aerial  vessels,  like  their  consorts  upon  the  water. 


6o    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

have  been  divided  into  distinctive  classes.  Thus 
there  are  the  aerial  cruisers  comprising  vessels 
exceeding  282,000  cubic  feet  in  capacity ;  scouts 
which  include  those  varying  between  176,600  and 
282,000  cubic  feet  capacity ;  and  vedettes,  which 
take  in  all  the  small  or  mosquito  craft.  At  the 
end  of  1913,  France  possessed  only  four  of  the 
first -named  craft  in  actual  commission  and  thus 
immediately  available  for  war,  these  being  the 
Adjutant  Vincenot,  Adjutant  Reau,  Dupuy  de  Lome, 
and  the  Transae'rien.  The  first  three  are  of 
197,800  cubic  feet.  All,  however,  were  privately 
owned. 

On  the  other  hand,  Germany  had  no  fewer  than 
ten  huge  vessels,  ranging  from  353,000  to  776,900 
cubic  feet  capacity,  three  of  which,  the  Victoria 
Luise,  Suchard,  and  Hansa,  though  owned  privately, 
were  immediately  available  for  war.  Of  these  the 
largest  was  the  Zeppelin  naval  vessel  "  L-I  "  525 
feet  in  length,  by  50  feet  diameter,  of  776,900 
cubic  feet  capacity,  equipped  with  engines 
developing  510  horse-power,  and  with  a  speed  of 
51-8  miles  per  hour. 

At  the  end  of  1913  the  effective  aerial  fleet  of 
Germany  comprised  twenty  large  craft,  so  far  in 
advance  of  the  French  aerial  cruisers  as  to  be 
worthy  of  the  name  bestowed  upon  them — 'Aerial 
Dreadnoughts.''  This  merely  represented  the  fleet 
available  for  immediate  use  and  did  not  include 
the   four  gigantic   Suchard-Schiitte   craft,   each   of 


ZEPPELIN   HARBOURS  6i 

847,500  cubic  feet,  which  were  under  construction, 
and  which  were  being  hurried  forward  to  come  into 
commission  early  in  1914. 

But  the  most  interesting  factor,  apart  from 
the  possession  of  such  a  huge  fleet  of  dirigible 
air-craft,  was  their  distribution  at  strategical  points 
throughout  the  Empire  as  if  in  readiness  for  the 
coming  combat.  They  were  literally  dotted  about 
the  country.  Adequate  harbouring  facilities  had 
been  provided  at  Konigsberg,  Berlin,  Posen,  Breslau, 
Kiel,  Hamburg,  Wilhelmshaven,  Dlisseldorf,  Cologne, 
Frankfort,  Metz,  Mannheim,  Strasburg,  and  other 
places,  with  elaborate  headquarters,  of  course,  at 
Friedrichshafen  upon  Lake  Constance.  The  Zeppelin 
workshops,  harbouring  facilities,  and  testing  grounds 
at  the  latter  point  had  undergone  complete  re- 
modelling, while  tools  of  the  latest  type  had  been 
provided  to  facilitate  the  rapid  construction  and 
overhaul  of  the  monster  Zeppelin  dirigibles.  Nothing 
had  been  left  to  chance  ;  not  an  item  was  perfunc- 
torily completed.  The  whole  organisation  was  per- 
fect, both  in  equipment  and  operation.  Each  of 
the  above  stations  possessed  provision  for  an  aerial 
Dreadnought  as  well  as  one  or  more  aerial  cruisers, 
in  addition  to  scouts  or  vedettes. 

Upon  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  Germany's 
dirigible  fleet  was  in  a  condition  of  complete  pre- 
paredness, was  better  organised,  and  better  equipped 
than  that  of  any  of  her  rivals.  At  the  same  time  it 
constituted  more  of  a  paper  than  a  fighting  array  for 


62    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

reasons  which  I  will  explain  later.  But  there  was 
another  point  which  had  escaped  general  observa- 
tion. Standardisation  of  parts  and  the  installation  of 
the  desired  machinery  had  accomplished  one  greatly 
desired  end — the  construction  of  new  craft  had  been 
accelerated.  Before  the  war  an  interesting  experi- 
ment was  carried  out  to  determine  how  speedily 
a  vessel  could  be  built.  The  result  proved  that  a 
dirigible  of  the  most  powerful  type  could  be  com- 
pleted within  eight  weeks  and  forthwith  the  various 
constructional  establishments  were  brought  into 
line  so  as  to  maintain  this  rate  of  building. 

The  growth  of  the  Zeppelin,  although  built  upon 
disaster,  has  been  amazing.  The  craft  of  1906 
had  a  capacity  of  430,000  cubic  feet  and  a  speed  of 
36  miles  per  hour.  In  191 1  the  creator  of  this 
type  launched  a  huge  craft  having  a  capacity  of 
627,000  cubic  feet.  In  the  meantime  speed  had 
likewise  been  augmented  by  the  use  of  more  powerful 
motors  until  52  miles  an  hour  was  attained.  But 
this  by  no  means  represented  the  limit.  The 
foregoing  vessels  had  been  designed  for  land  service 
purely  and  simply,  but  now  the  German  authorities 
demanded  similar  craft  for  naval  use,  possessed 
of  high  speed  and  greater  radius  of  action.  Count 
Zeppelin  rose  to  the  occasion,  and  on  October  7th, 
1 91 2,  launched  at  Friedrichshafen  the  monster 
craft  "  L-I,"  525  feet  in  length,  50  feet  in  diameter, 
of  776,900  cubic  feet  capacity,  a  displacement  of 
22  tons  and  equipped  with  three  sets  of  motors 


NAVAL  AIR-CRAFT  63 

aggregating  more  than  500  horse-power,  and  capable 
of  imparting  a  speed  of  52  miles  per  hour. 

The  appearance  of  this  craft  was  hailed  with 
intense  delight  by  the  German  nation,  while  the 
naval  department  considered  her  to  be  a  wonderful 
acquisition,  especially  after  the  searching  relia- 
bility trial.  In  charge  of  Count  Zeppelin  and  manned 
by  a  crew  of  22  officers  and  men  together  with  nearly 
three  tons  of  fuel — the  fuel  capacity  conveys  some 
idea  of  her  possible  radius  of  action — she  travelled 
from  Friedrichshafen  to  Johannisthal  in  32  hours. 
On  this  remarkable  journey  another  point  was  es- 
tablished which  was  of  far-reaching  significance. 
The  vessel  was  equipped  with  wireless  telegraphy 
and  therewith  she  kept  in  touch  with  the  earth 
below  throughout  the  journey,  dropping  and  picking 
up  wireless  stations  as  she  progressed  with  complete 
facility.  This  was  a  distinct  achievement,  inasmuch 
as  the  vessel  having  been  constructed  especially 
for  naval  operations  she  would  be  able  to  keep  in 
touch  with  the  warships  below,  guiding  them 
unerringly  during  their  movement. 

The  cross-country  trip  having  proved  so  completely 
successful  the  authorities  were  induced  to  believe 
that  travelling  over  water  would  be  equally  satis- 
factory. Accordingly  the  "  L-I  "  was  dispatched 
to  the  island  of  Heligoland,  the  intention  being  to 
participate  in  naval  manoeuvres  in  order  to  provide 
some  reliable  data  as  to  the  value  of  these  craft 
operating  in   conjunction   with   warships.     But   in 


64    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

these  tests  German  ambition  and  pride  received  a 
check.  The  huge  Zeppehn  was  manoeuvring  over 
the  North  Sea  within  easy  reach  of  HeHgoland, 
when  she  was  caught  by  one  of  those  sudden  storms 
peculiar  to  that  stretch  of  salt  water.  In  a  moment 
she  was  stricken  helpless  ;  her  motive  power  was 
overwhelmed  by  the  blind  forces  of  Nature.  The 
wind  caught  her  as  it  would  a  soap-bubble  and  hurled 
her  into  the  sea,  precipitating  the  most  disastrous 
calamity  in  the  annals  of  aeronautics,  since  not  only 
was  the  ship  lost,  but  fifteen  of  her  crew  of 
22  officers  and  men  were  drowned. 

The  catastrophe  created  consternation  in  German 
aeronautical  circles.  A  searching  inquiry  was  held 
to  explain  the  disaster,  but  as  usual  it  failed  to  yield 
much  material  information.  It  is  a  curious  cir- 
cumstance, but  every  successive  Zeppelin  disaster, 
and  their  number  is  legion,  has  been  attributable 
to  a  new  cause.  In  this  instance  the  accident  was 
additionally  disturbing,  inasmuch  as  the  ship  had 
been  flying  across  country  continuously  for  about 
twelve  months  and  had  covered  more  miles  than  any 
preceding  craft  of  her  type.  No  scientific  explan- 
ation for  the  disaster  was  forthcoming,  but  the 
commander  of  the  vessel,  who  sank  with  his  ship, 
had  previously  ventured  his  personal  opinion  that 
the  vessel  was  over-loaded  to  meet  the  calls  of 
ambition,  was  by  no  means  seaworthy,  and  that 
sooner  or  later  she  would  be  caught  by  a  heavy 
broadside  wind  and  rendered  helpless,  or  that  she 


ZEPPELIN    "L-ir'  65 

would  make  a  headlong  dive  to  destruction.  It  is 
a  significant  fact  that  he  never  had  any  faith  in 
the  airship,  at  least  for  sea  duty,  though  in  response 
to  official  command  he  carried  out  his  duties 
faithfully  and  with  a  blind  resignation  to  Fate. 

Meantime,  owing  to  the  success  of  the  "  L-I  " 
in  cross-country  operations,  another  and  more 
powerful  craft,  the  "  L-II  "  had  been  taken  in  hand, 
and  this  was  constructed  also  for  naval  use.  While 
shorter  than  her  consort,  being  only  487  feet  over- 
all, this  vessel  had  a  greater  beam — 55  feet.  This 
latter  increase  was  decided  because  it  was  con- 
ceded to  be  an  easier  matter  to  provide  for  greater 
beam  than  enhanced  length  in  the  existing  air-ship 
harbours.  The  ''L-II  "  displaced  27  tons — five  tons 
in  excess  of  her  predecessor.  In  this  vessel  many 
innovations  were  introduced,  such  as  the  provision 
of  the  passage-way  connecting  the  cars  within  the 
hull,  instead  of  outside  the  latter  as  had  hitherto 
been  the  practice,  while  the  three  cars  were  placed 
more  closely  together  than  formerly.  The  motors 
were  of  an  improved  type,  giving  an  aggregate 
output  of  900  horse-power,  and  were  divided  into 
four  separate  units,  housed  in  two  engine-rooms, 
the  front  car  being  a  replica  in  every  detail  of  the 
navigating  bridge  of  a  warship. 

This  vessel  was  regarded  as  a  distinct  improve- 
ment upon  the  "  L-I,"  although  the  latter  could 
boast  some  great  achievements.  But  her  glory  was 
short-lived.     In    the    course    of    the    Government 

F 


66    AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

trials,  while  some  900  feet  aloft,  the  huge  vessel 
suddenly  exploded  and  was  burned  in  the  air,  a 
mass  of  broken  and  twisted  metal-work  falling  to 
the  ground.  Of  the  28  officers  and  men,  including 
members  of  the  Admiralty  Board  who  were  con- 
ducting the  official  trials,  all  but  one  were  killed 
outright,  and  the  solitary  exception  was  so  terribly 
burned  as  to  survive  the  fall  for  only  a  few  hours. 

The  accident  was  remarkable  and  demonstrated 
very  convincingly  that  although  Count  Zeppelin  ap- 
parently had  made  huge  strides  in  aerial  navigation 
through  the  passage  of  years,  yet  in  reality  he  had 
made  no  progress  at  all.  He  committed  the  identical 
error  that  characterised  the  effort  of  Severo  Pax 
ten  years  previously,  and  the  disaster  was  directly 
attributable  to  the  self-same  cause  as  that  which 
overwhelmed  the  Severo  airship.  The  gas,  escaping 
from  the  balloons  housed  in  the  hull,  collected  in 
the  confined  passage-way  communicating  with  the 
cars,  came  into  contact  with  a  naked  light,  possibly 
the  exhaust  from  the  motors,  and  instantly  de- 
tonated with  terrific  force,  blowing  the  airship  to 
fragments  and  setting  fire  to  all  the  inflammable 
materials. 

In  this  airship  Zeppelin  committed  an  unpardon- 
able blunder.  He  had  ignored  the  factor  of  "  in- 
ternal safety,"  and  had  deliberately  flown  in  the 
face  of  the  official  rule  which  had  been  laid  down  in 
France  after  the  Severo  disaster,  which  absolutely 
forbade  the  inclusion  of    such  confined  spaces  as 


ZEPPELIN  IV  AT  LUNEVILLE     67 

Zeppelin  had  incorporated.  This  catastrophe  coming 
so  closely  as  it  did  upon  the  preceding  disaster  to 
the  pride  of  the  German  aerial  fleet  somewhat  shook 
public  confidence  in  these  craft,  while  aeronautical 
authorities  of  other  countries  described  the  Zeppelin 
more  vehemently  than  ever  as  a  "  mechanical 
monstrosity  "  and  a  "  scientific  curiosity." 

The  Zeppehn  has  come  to  be  feared  in  a  general 
manner,  but  this  result  is  due  rather  to  stories 
sedulously  circulated,  and  which  -may  be  easily 
traced  to  Teutonic  sources.  Very  few  data  of  a  reli- 
able character  have  been  allowed  to  filter  through 
official  circles.  We  have  been  told  somewhat 
verbosely  of  what  it  can  accomplish  and  of  its  high 
degree  of  efficiency  and  speed.  But  can  credence 
be  placed  in  these  statements  ? 

When  Zeppelin  IV.  made  its  unexpected  descent 
at  Luneville,  and  was  promptly  seized  by  the  French 
authorities,  the  German  War  Office  evinced  distinct 
signs  of  uneasiness.  The  reason  was  speedily  forth- 
coming. The  captain  of  the  craft  which  had  been 
captured  forgot  to  destroy  his  log  and  other  records 
of  data  concerning  the  vessel  which  had  been 
scientifically  collected  during  the  journey.  All 
this  information  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French 
military  department,  and  it  proved  a  wondrous 
revelation.  It  enabled  the  French  to  value  the 
Zeppelin  at  its  true  worth,  which  was  by  no  means 
comparable  to  the  estimate  based  on  reports  skil- 
fully circulated  for  the  benefit  of  the  world  at  large. 

F  2 


68   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

Recently  the  French  mihtary  department  per- 
mitted the  results  of  their  expert  official  examination 
to  be  made  pubUc.  From  close  investigation  of  the 
log-book  and  the  diagrams  which  had  been  prepared, 
it  was  found  that  the  maximum  speed  attained  by 
Zeppelin  IV.  during  this  momentous  flight  was 
only  45  miles  per  hour !  It  was  ascertained, 
moreover,  that  the  load  was  10,560  pounds, 
and  the  ascensional  effort  45,100  pounds.  The 
fuel  consumption  had  averaged  297  pounds  per 
hour,  while  the  fuel  tanks  carried  sufficient  for  a 
flight  of  about  seven  hours.  The  airship  had 
attained  a  maximum  height  of  about  6,230  feet,  to 
reach  which  6,600  pounds  of  ballast  had  to  be 
discarded.  Moreover,  it  was  proved  that  a  Zeppelin, 
if  travelling  under  military  conditions  with  full 
armament  and  ammunition  aboard,  could  carry 
sufficient  fuel  for  only  ten  hours  at  the  utmost, 
during  which,  if  the  slightest  head-wind  prevailed, 
it  could  not  cover  more  than  340  miles  on  the  one 
fuel  charge. 

This  information  has  certainly  proved  a  revelation 
and  has  contributed  to  the  indifference  with  which 
the  Parisians  regard  a  Zeppelin  raid.  At  the  out- 
break of  war  the  Zeppelin  station  nearest  to  Paris 
was  at  Metz,  but  to  make  the  raid  from  that  point 
the  airship  was  forced  to  cover  a  round  500  miles. 
It  is  scarcely  to  be  supposed  that  perfectly  calm 
weather  would  prevail  during  the  whole  period  of  the 
flight,  so  that  a  raid  would  be  attended  by  con- 


I 


CAPTURE  OF  ZEPPELIN  IV       69 

siderable  risk.  That  this  handicap  was  recognised 
in  German  mihtary  circles  is  borne  out  by  the 
fact  that  a  temporary  Zeppelin  hangar  was  estab- 
lished at  a  point  considerably  nearer  the  French 
capital,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  a  raid  to  be 
carried  out  with  a  greater  possibility  of  success. 

The  capture  of  Zeppelin  IV.  revealed  another 
important  fact.  The  critical  flying  height  of  the 
airship  is  between  3,300  and  4,000  feet.  To  attempt 
a  raid  at  such  an  altitude  would  be  to  court  certain 
disaster,  inasmuch  as  the  vessel  would  have  to  run 
the  gauntlet  of  the  whole  of  the  French  artillery, 
which  it  is  admitted  has  a  maximum  range  exceeding 
the  flying  altitude  of  the  Zeppelin.  That  the  above 
calculation  is  within  reason  is  supported  by  the 
statements  of  Count  Zeppelin  himself,  who  has 
declared  that  his  airships  are  useless  at  a  height 
exceeding  5,000  feet.  Confirmatory  evidence  upon 
this  point  is  offered  by  the  raid  upon  the  British 
East  Coast  towns,  when  it  is  stated  that  the  aircraft 
were  manoeuvring  at  a  height  not  exceeding  2,000 
feet. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  MILITARY  VALUE  OF  GERMANY'S  AERIAL 
FLEET 

Although  the  Zeppelin  undoubtedly  has  been 
over-rated  by  the  forces  to  which  it  is  attached,  at 
the  same  time  it  must  not  be  under-estimated  by 
its  detractors.  Larger  and  more  powerful  vessels 
of  this  type  have  been,  and  still  are  being,  con- 
structed, culminating,  so  far  as  is  known,  in  the 
"  L-5,"  which  is  stated  to  have  a  capacity  of 
about  1,000,000  cubic  feet,  and  to  possess  an 
average  speed  of  65  miles  per  hour. 

While  it  is  generally  maintained  that  the  Zeppelins 
will  prove  formidable  in  attack,  greater  reliance  is 
being  placed  upon  the  demoralising  or  terrifying 
effect  which  they  are  able  to  exercise.  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  from  3  to  5  tons  of  fuel — say  900  to 
1,500  gallons  of  gasoline  or  petrol — can  be  carried 
aboard,  giving  them  a  wide  radius  of  action,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  they  could  travel  from  Cologne 
to  London  and  back  upon  a  single  fuel  charge,  since 
such  a  raid  would  entail  a  journey  of  about  600 


NOCTURNAL  RAIDS  71 

miles.  The  latest  types  of  this  craft  are  said  to 
possess  a  high  ascensional  speed,  which  offers  a 
distinct  protection  against  aeroplane  attack.  Accord- 
ing to  such  official  information  as  has  been  vouch- 
safed, a  Zeppelin,  when  hard  pressed,  is  able  to  rise 
vertically  3,500  feet  in  about  three  minutes.  This 
is  far  in  excess  of  the  ascensional  speed  of  even  the 
speediest  aeroplane.  Of  course,  the  penalty  for 
such  a  factor  has  to  be  paid  :  the  loss  of  gas  is 
appreciable  and  may  lead  to  the  craft's  ultimate 
undoing.  At  the  same  time,  however,  it  is  able  to 
maintain  the  superior  position  as  compared  with  the 
aeroplane  for  a  considerable  period :  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  air  are  its  sanctuary. 

Nor  must  the  nocturnal  activities  of  the  Zeppelin 
be  overlooked.  So  far  as  night  operations  by  these 
vessels  are  concerned,  little  has  leaked  out,  so  that  the 
possibilities  of  the  airship  in  this  direction  are  still 
somewhat  hypothetical.  The  fact  remains,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  night  movements  which  perhaps  are 
the  most  to  be  dreaded  by  the  enemy.  According 
to  official  German  sources  of  information  the  latest 
types  of  Zeppelins  are  engined  by  "  noiseless " 
motors.  There  is  nothing  remarkable  in  this  feature, 
since  the  modern  motor-car  virtually  answers  to  this 
description,  although  in  this  instance  quietness  is 
obtained  for  the  most  part  by  recourse  to  the  sleeve- 
valve  engine.  Still,  the  ordinary  Otto-cycle  internal 
combustion  engine  can  be  rendered  almost  silent 
by   the   utilisation   of   adequate   muffling   devices, 


72   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

which,  in  the  ZeppeHn,  are  more  possible  of  in- 
corporation than  in  the  aeroplane,  because  the  extra 
weight  imposed  by  this  acquisition  is  a  minor  con- 
sideration in  comparison  with  the  lifting  power  of 
the  vessel. 

Night  operations,  however,  have  not  proved 
eminently  successful.  The  very  darkness  which 
protects  the  aerial  prowler  also  serves  a  similar 
purpose  in  connection  with  its  prey.  But  aerial 
operations  under  the  cover  of  darkness  are  guided 
not  so  much  by  the  glare  of  lights  from  below  as 
betrayal  by  sound.  The  difference  between  villages 
and  cities  may  be  distinguished  from  aloft,  say  at 
1,500  to  3,000  feet,  by  the  hum  which  life  and 
movement  emit,  and  this  is  the  best  guide  to  the 
aerial  scout  or  battleship.  The  German  authorities 
have  made  a  special  study  of  this  peculiar  problem, 
and  have  conducted  innumerable  tests  upon  the 
darkest  nights,  when  even  the  sheen  of  the  moon 
has  been  unavailable,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
training  the  aerial  navigators  to  discover  their 
position  from  the  different  sounds  reaching  them 
from  below.  In  other  words,  the  corsair  in  the  skies 
depends  more  upon  compass  and  sound  than  upon 
compass  and  vision  when  operating  after  dark. 
The  searchlights  with  which  the  Zeppelins  are 
equipped  are  provided  merely  for  illuminating  a 
supposed  position.  They  are  not  brought  into 
service  until  the  navigator  concludes  that  he  has 
arrived  above  the  desired  point :   the  ray  of  light 


AIRSHIP  "V-i''  73 

which  is  then  projected  is  merely  to  assist  the  crew 
in  the  discharge  of  the  missiles  of  destruction. 

The  Zeppelin,  however,  owing  to  its  speed,  both 
in  the  horizontal  and  vertical  planes,  is  essentially 
a  unit  for  daylight  operations.  The  other  airships 
which  Germany  possesses,  and  which  for  the  most 
part  are  of  the  non-rigid  type,  are  condemned  to 
daylight  operations  from  the  character  of  their 
design.  Owing  to  their  low  speeds  they  may  be 
dismissed  as  impossible  aerial  vessels  for  hazardous 
work  and  are  not  regarded  by  the  German  authorities 
as  all-round  airships  of  war. 

Craft  of  the  air  are  judged  in  Germany  from  the 
one  standard  only.  This  may  be  a  Teutonic  failing, 
but  it  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the  Teutonic  spirit 
of  militarism.  Commercialism  is  a  secondary 
factor.  To  the.  German  Emperor  an  airship  is  much 
what  a  new  manufacturing  process  or  machine  is  to 
the  American.  Whereas  the  latter  asks,  "  How  much 
will  it  save  me  on  the  dollar  ?  "  to  the  War  Lord  of 
Germany — and  an  airship  notwithstanding  its  other 
recommendatory  features  is  judged  solely  from  this 
standpoint — the  question  is  :  "  What  are  its  military 
qualifications  ?  " 

When  the  semi-rigid  airship  "  V-i  "  was  brought 
before  the  notice  of  the  German  military  department 
the  pressing  point  concerning  its  military  recom- 
mendations arose  at  once.  The  inventor  had  fore- 
seen this  issue  and  was  optimistic.  Thereupon 
the  authorities  asked  if  the  inventor  were  prepared 


74   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

to  justify  his  claims.  The  retort  was  positive. 
Forthwith  the  Junkers  decided  to  submit  it  to  the 
test. 

This  ship  is  of  quite  a  distinctive  type.  It  is  an 
aerial  cruiser,  and  the  inventor  claims  that  it  com- 
bines all  the  essential  qualifications  of  the  Zeppelin 
and  of  the  competitors  of  the  latter,  in  addition  to 
the  advantage  of  being  capable  of  dissection,  trans- 
portation in  parts,  and  rapid  re-erection  at  any 
desired  spot.  The  length  of  the  vessel  is  about 
270  feet ;  maximum  diameter  approximately  42 
feet,  and  capacity  about  300,000  cubic  feet.  The 
outstanding  feature  is  a  rigid  keel-frame  forming  a 
covered  passage  way  below  the  envelope  or  gas-bag> 
combined  with  easy  access  to  all  parts  of  the  craft 
while  under  way,  together  with  an  artificial  stiffening 
which  dispenses  with  the  necessity  of  attaching  any 
additional  cars.  The  frame  is  so  designed  that  the 
load,  as  well  as  the  ballast  and  fuel  tanks,  may  be 
distributed  as  desired,  and  at  the  same  time  it 
ensures  an  advantageous  disposition  of  the  steering 
mechanism,  far  removed  from  the  centre  of  rotation 
at  the  stern,  without  any  overloading  of  the  latter. 

The  lifting  part  of  the  airship  comprises  a  single 
gas  bag  fitted  with  two  ballonets  provided  to  ensure 
the  requisite  gas-tension  in  the  main  envelope, 
while  at  the  same  time  permitting,  in  times  of  emer- 
gency, a  rapid  change  of  altitude.  Self-contained 
blowers  contribute  to  the  preservation  of  the  shape 
of  the  envelope,  the  blowers  and  the  ballonets  being 


ZEPPELINS  TO  INVADE  ENGLAND  75 

under  the  control  of  the  pilot.  Planes  resembling 
Venetian  blinds  facilitate  vertical  steering,  while 
the  suspension  of  the  keel  is  carried  out  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  secure  uniformity  of  weight  upon  the 
gas  bag.  The  propelling  power  comprises  two  sets 
of  internal  combustion  engines,  each  developing 
130  horse-power,  the  transmission  being  through 
rubber  belting.  The  propellers,  built  of  wood, 
make  350  revolutions  per  minute,  and  are  set  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  centre  of  resistance. 

But  the  most  salient  characteristic  of  this  machine 
is  its  portability.  It  can  be  dismantled  and  trans- 
ported by  wagons  to  any  desired  spot,  the  suspension 
frame  being  constructed  in  units,  each  of  which 
is  sufficiently  small  to  be  accommodated  in  an  or- 
dinary vehicle.  Upon  arrival  the  parts  may  be  put 
together  speedily  and  easily.  The  authorities  sub- 
mitted the  airship  to  exacting  trials  and  were  so 
impressed  by  its  characteristics  and  the  claims  of 
the  inventor  that  undoubtedly  it  will  be  brought 
into  service  during  the  present  crisis. 

At  the  same  time  the  whole  faith  of  the  German 
military  staff  so  far  as  airship  operations  are  con- 
cerned, is  pinned  to  the  Zeppelin.  Notwithstanding 
its  many  drawbacks  it  is  the  vessel  which  will  be 
used  for  the  invasion  of  Great  Britain.  Even  the 
harbour  question,  which  is  admitted  to  be  somewhat 
acute,  has  been  solved  to  a  certain  degree.  At  stra- 
tegical points  permanent  harbours  or  airship  sheds 
have  been  established.    Seeing  that    the    airships 


76   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

demand  considerable  skill  in  docking  and  undocking, 
and  that  it  is  impossible  to  achieve  these  operations 
against  the  wind,  swinging  sheds  have  been  adopted. 

On  water  the  practice  is  to  anchor  a  floating 
harbour  at  one  end,  leaving  the  structure  to  swing 
round  with  the  wind.  But  on  dry  land  such  a 
dock  is  impossible.  Accordingly  turn-table  sheds 
have  been  adopted.  The  shed  is  mounted  upon  a 
double  turn-table,  there  being  two  circular  tracks, 
the  one  near  the  centre  of  the  shed  and  the  other 
towards  its  extremities.  The  shed  is  mounted 
upon  a  centre  pivot  and  wheels  engaged  with  these 
inner  and  outer  tracks.  In  this  manner  the  shed 
may  be  swung  round  to  the  most  favourable  point 
of  the  compass  according  to  the  wind. 

In  the  field,  however,  such  practices  are  impossible, 
and  the  issue  in  this  connection  has  been  overcome  by 
recourse  to  what  may  be  termed  portable  harbours. 
They  resemble  the  tents  of  peripatetic  circuses 
and  travelling  exhibitions.  There  is  a  network  of 
vertical  steel  members  which  may  be  set  with 
facility  and  speed  and  which  are  stayed  by  means 
of  wire  guys.  At  the  top  of  the  outer  vertical 
posts  pulleys  are  provided  whereby  the  outer  skin 
or  canvas  forming  the  walls  may  be  hauled  into 
position,  while  at  the  apex  of  the  roof  further 
pulleys  ensure  the  proper  placing  of  the  roofing. 
The  airship  is  able  to  enter  or  leave  from  either  end 
according  to  conditions.  The  material  is  fire- 
proofed  as  a  precautionary  measure,  but  at  the  same 


[A  IJieri 

Belgian  Mechanics  Repairing  an  Aeroplane  Engine  at  the 
Aviation  Base  of  the  Allies  in  the  North  of  France. 


BRITISH  RAIDS  ON  GERMANY    77 

time  the  modern  aerial  bomb  is  able  to  penetrate 
the  roofing  without  any  difficulty  and  to  explode 
against  the  airship  anchored  within. 

The  one  great  objection  to  the  Zeppelin  harbour 
is  the  huge  target  it  offers  to  hostile  attack,  which, 
in  the  event  of  a  vessel  being  moored  within,  is 
inevitably  serious.  Thus,  for  instance,  upon  the 
occasion  of  the  air  raids  conducted  by  Lieutenant 
Collet  and  of  Squadron  Commander  Briggs  and  his 
colleagues  at  Diisseldorf  and  Friedrichshafen  re- 
spectively, little  difficulty  was  experienced  in 
destroying  the  airships  riding  at  anchor.  The 
target  offered  by  the  shed  is  so  extensive  that  it 
would  be  scarcely  possible  for  a  flying  enemy  to 
miss  it.  A  bomb  dropped  from  a  reasonable  height, 
say  500  feet,  would  be  almost  certain  to  strike 
some  part  of  the  building,  and  a  Zeppelin  is  an  easy 
vessel  to  destroy.  The  firing  of  one  balloon  is 
sufficient  to  detonate  the  whole,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  hydrogen  gas  is  continuously  oozing 
through  the  bags  in  which  it  is  contained.  Ac- 
cording to  a  recent  statement  the  Germans  are  said 
to  be  utilising  an  inert  or  non-inflammable  gas, 
equal  in  lifting  power  to  hydrogen,  for  the  inflation 
of  mihtary  craft,  but  scientific  thought  does  not 
entertain  this  statement  with  any  degree  of  serious- 
ness. No  gas  as  fight  as  hydrogen  and  non-explosive 
is  known  to  commerce. 

Will  Germany  invade  Great  Britain  by  air  ? 
This  is  the  absorbing  topic  of  the  moment — one 


78   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

which  has  created  intense  interest  and  a  certain 
feeling  of  alarm  among  the  timorous.  Although 
sporadic  raids  are  considered  to  be  possible  and 
likely  to  be  carried  out  with  a  varying  measure  of 
success — ^such  as  that  made  upon  the  British  East 
Coast — eminent  authorities  ridicule  an  invasion  in 
force.  The  risk  would  be  enormous,  although 
there  is  no  doubt  that  Germany,  which  has  always 
maintained  that  an  invasion  of  this  character  will 
be  made,  will  be  compelled  to  essay  such  a  task,  in 
order  to  satisfy  public  opinion,  and  to  justify 
official  statements.  It  is  a  moot  point,  however, 
whether  the  invaders  ever  will  succeed  in  making 
good  their  escape,  unless  Nature  proves  exception- 
ally kind. 

The  situation  is  best  summed  up  in  the  unbiassed 
report  of  General  George  P.  Scriven,  Chief  Signal 
Officer  of  the  United  States  Army  to  the  U.S.  Secre- 
tary of  War.  In  this  report,  which  deals  exhaustively 
with  the  history,  construction  and  achievements  of 
airships,  such  an  invasion  is  described  as  fantastic 
and  impracticable.  Writing  on  November  loth, 
1914,  the  officer  declares  that  "  he  is  not  prepared  to 
recommend  the  American  Army  to  take  up  seriously 
the  question  of  constructing  dirigibles,  as  they  are 
not  worth  their  cost  as  offensive  machines,  while  for 
reconnaissance  or  defence  they  are  of  far  less  value 
than  aeroplanes."  In  his  words,  "  Dirigibles  are 
seemingly  useless  in  defence  against  the  aeroplane 
or  gun-fire." 


DISABILITIES  79 

In  order  to  be  able  to  make  an  invasion  in  force 
upon  Great  Britain's  cities  extremely  favourable 
weather  must  prevail,  and  the  treacherous  nature  of 
the  weather  conditions  of  the  North  Sea  are  known 
fully  well  both  to  British  and  Teuton  navigators. 
Seeing  that  the  majority  of  the  Zeppelin  pilots  are 
drawn  from  the  Navy  and  mercantile  marine,  and 
thus  are  conversant  with  the  peculiarities  and  char- 
acteristics of  this  stretch  of  salt  water,  it  is  only 
logical  to  suppose  that  their  knowledge  will  exert 
a  powerful  influence  in  any  such  decision,  the  re- 
commendations of  the  meteorological  savants  not- 
withstanding. 

When  the  Zeppelin  pride  of  the  German  Navy 
"  L-I  "  was  hurled  to  destruction  by  a  typical  North 
Sea  squall,  Captain  Blew  of  the  Victoria  Luise,  a 
Zeppelin  with  many  great  achievements  to  her  credit, 
whose  navigator  was  formerly  in  the  Navy,  and 
thus  is  familiar  with  the  whole  issue,  explained  that 
this  atmospheric  liveliness  of  the  North  Sea  prevails 
for  the  most  part  in  the  latitude  of  Norway,  but  that 
it  frequently  extends  as  far  south  as  the  gate  of  the 
Channel.  He  related  furthermore  that  the  rain 
squalls  are  of  tropical  violence,  while  the  vertical 
thrusts  of  air  are  such  that  no  dirigible  as  yet 
constructed  could  ever  hope  to  live  in  them.  Under 
such  conditions,  he  continued,  the  gas  is  certain 
to  cool  intensely,  and  the  hull  must  then  become 
waterlogged,  not  to  mention  the  downward  thrust 
of  the  rain.     Under  such  conditions  buoyancy  must 


8o   AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

be  imperilled  to  such  a  degree  as  to  demand  the 
jettisoning  of  every  piece  of  ballast,  fuel  and  other 
removable  weight,  including  even  the  steadying  and 
vertical  planes.  When  this  has  been  done,  he 
pointed  out,  nothing  is  left  with  which  to  combat 
the  upward  vertical  thrusts  of  the  air.  To  attempt 
to  run  before  the  wind  is  to  court  positive  disaster, 
as  the  wind  is  certain  to  gain  the  mastery.  Once 
the  airship  loses  steering  way  and  is  rendered  un- 
controllable it  becomes  the  sport  of  the  forces  of 
Nature,  with  the  result  that  destruction  is  merely 
a  matter  of  minutes,  or  even  seconds. 

Every  navigator  who  knows  the  North  Sea  will 
support  these  conclusions.  Squalls  and  blizzards 
in  winter,  and  thunderstorms  in  summer,  rise  with 
startling  suddenness  and  rage  with  terrific  destructive 
fury.  Such  conditions  must  react  against  the 
attempt  of  an  aerial  invasion  in  force,  unless  it  be 
made  in  the  character  of  the  last  throw  by  a  des- 
perate gambler,  with  good  fortune  favouring  the 
dash  to  a  certain  degree.  But  lesser  and  more 
insignificant  Zeppelin  raids  are  likely  to  be  some- 
what frequent,  and  to  be  made  at  every  favourable 
climatic  opportunity. 


CHAPTER   VII 

AEROPLANES  OF  WAR 

Owing  to  the  fertility  of  inventors  and  the  resul- 
tant multiplicity  of  designs  it  is  impossible  to  describe 
every  type  of  heavier-than-air  machine  which  has 
been  submitted  to  the  exacting  requirements  of 
mihtary  duty.  The  variety  is  infinite  and  the 
salient  fact  has  already  been  established  that  many 
of  the  models  which  have  proved  reliable  and 
efficient  under  normal  conditions  are  unsuited  to 
mihtary  operations.  The  early  days  of  the  war 
enabled  those  of  doubtful  value  to  be  eliminated, 
the  result  being  that  those  machines  which  are  now 
in  use  represent  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  Exper- 
ience has  furthermore  emphasised  the  necessity 
of  reducing  the  number  of  types  to  the  absolute 
minimum.  This  weeding-out  process  is  being  con- 
tinued and  there  is  no  doubt  that  by  the  time  the 
war  is  concluded  the  number  of  approved  types  of 
aeroplanes  of  mihtary  value  will  have  been  reduced 
to  a  score  or  less.    The  inconveniences  and  disad- 

8t  Q 


82  AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

vantages  arising  from  the  utilisation  of  a  wide  variety 
of  different  types  are  manifold,  the  greatest  being 
the  necessity  of  carrying  a  varied  assortment  of 
spare  parts,  and  confusion  in  the  repair  and  over- 
hauling shops. 

The  methodical  Teuton  was  the  first  to  grasp 
the  significance  of  these  drawbacks  ;  he  has  accord- 
ingly carried  standardisation  to  a  high  degree  of 
efficiency,  as  is  shown  in  another  chapter.  At  a 
later  date  France  appreciated  the  wisdom  of  the 
German  practice,  and  within  a  short  time  after  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities  promptly  ruled  out  certain 
types  of  machines  which  were  regarded  as  unsuit- 
able. In  this  instance  the  process  of  elimination 
created  considerable  surprise,  inasmuch  as  it  in- 
volved an  embargo  on  the  use  of  certain  machines, 
which  under  peace  conditions  had  achieved  an 
international  reputation,  and  were  held  to  represent 
the  finest  expression  of  aeronautical  science  in 
France  as  far  as  aeroplane  developments  are 
concerned. 

Possibly  the  German  machine  which  is  most 
famihar,  by  name,  to  the  general  public  is  the 
Taube,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Etrich 
monoplane,  from  the  circumstance  that  it  was 
evolved  by  the  Austrian  engineer  Igo  Etrich  in 
collaboration  with  his  colleague  Wels.  These  two 
experimenters  embarked  on  the  study  of  dynamic 
flight  contemporaneously  with  Maxim,  Langley, 
Kress,  and  many  other  well-known  pioneers,  but 


THE  '^TAUBE'  83 

it  was  not  until  1908  that  their  first  practical 
machine  was  completed.  Its  success  was  instan- 
taneous, many  notable  flights  being  placed  to  its 
credit,  while  some  idea  of  the  perfection  of  its  design 
may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  machine 
of  to-day  is  substantially  identical  with  that  used 
seven  years  ago,  the  alterations  which  have  been 
effected  meanwhile  being  merely  modifications  in 
minor  details. 

The  design  of  this  machine  follows  very  closely 
the  lines  of  a  bird  in  flight — ^hence  its  colloquial 
description,  "  Taube,"  or  "  dove."  Indeed  the 
analogy  to  the  bird  is  so  close  that  the  ribs  of  the 
frame  resemble  the  feathers  of  a  bird.  The  sup- 
porting plane  is  shaped  in  the  manner  of  a  bird's 
distended  wing,  and  is  tipped  up  at  the  rear  ends 
to  ensure  stability.  The  tail  also  resembles  that 
of  a  bird  very  closely. 

This  aeroplane,  especially  the  latest  type,  is 
very  speedy,  and  it  has  proved  extremely  reliable. 
It  is  very  sharp  in  turning  and  extremely  sensitive 
to  its  rudder,  which  renders  it  a  first-class  craft  for 
reconnoitring  duty.  The  latest  machines  are  fitted 
with  motors  developing  from  120  to  150  horse-power. 

The  ''  Taube "  commanded  attention  in  Ger- 
many for  the  reason  that  it  indicated  the  first 
departure  from  the  adherence  to  the  French  designs 
which  up  to  that  time  had  been  followed  somewhat 
slavishly,  owing  to  the  absence  of  native  initiative. 
The    individuality    of    character    revealed    in    the 

G2 


84   AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

"  Taube  "  appealed  to  the  German  instinct,  with 
the  result  that  the  machine  achieved  a  greater 
reputation  than  might  have  been  the  case  had  it 
been  pitted  against  other  types  of  essentially 
Teutonic  origin.  The  Taube  was  subsequently 
tested  both  in  France  and  Great  Britain,  but  failed 
to  raise  an  equal  degree  of  enthusiasm,  owing  to 
the  manifestation  of  certain  defects  which  marred 
its  utility.  This  practical  experience  tended  to 
prove  that  the  Taube,  like  the  Zeppelin,  possessed  a 
local  reputation  somewhat  of  the  paper  type.  The 
Germans,  however,  were  by  no  means  disappointed 
by  such  adverse  criticism,  but  promptly  set  to 
work  to  eliminate  defects  with  a  view  to  securing 
an  all-round  improvement. 

The  most  successful  of  these  endeavours  is  repre- 
sented in  the  Taube-Rumpler  aeroplane,  which  may 
be  described  as  an  improved  edition  of  Etrich's 
original  idea.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  modifications 
were  of  so  slight,  though  important,  a  character 
that  many  machines  generically  described  as 
"  Taubes  "  are  in  reality  Rumplers,  but  the  differ- 
ence is  beyond  detection  by  the  ordinary  and  un- 
practised observer. 

In  the  Rumpler  machine  the  wings,  like  those  of 
the  Taube,  assume  broadly  the  form  and  shape  of 
those  of  the  pigeon  or  dove  in  flight.  The  early 
Rumpler  machines  suffered  from  sluggish  control, 
but  in  the  later  types  this  defect  has  been  overcome. 
In  the  early  models  the  wings  were  flexible,  but  in 


¥ 


THE  -GOTHA"  AND  -ALBATROSS"  85 

the  present  craft  they  are  rigid,  although  fitted  with 
tips  or  ailerons.  The  supporting  truss  beneath  the 
wings,  which  was  such  an  outstanding  feature  of  its 
prototype,  has  been  dispensed  with,  the  usual 
I-beam  longitudinals  being  used  in  its  stead.  The 
latest  machines  fitted  with  100-120  horse-power 
Mercedes  motors  have  a  fine  turn  of  speed,  possess 
an  enhanced  ascensional  effort,  and  are  far  simpler 
to  control. 

Other  German  machines  which  are  used  in  the 
military  service  are  the  Gotha  and  the  Albatross. 
The  former  is  a  monoplane,  and  here  again  the 
influence  of  Etrich  upon  German  aeroplane  develop- 
ments is  strongly  manifested,  the  shape  of  the  bird's 
wing  being  retained.  In  the  Gotha  the  truss  which 
Etrich  introduced  is  a  prominent  characteristic. 
The  Albatross  is  a  biplane,  but  this  craft  has  proved 
to  be  somewhat  slow  and  may  be  said  to  be  confined 
to  what  might  be  described  as  the  heavier  aerial 
military  duties,  where  great  endurance  and  relia- 
bility are  essential.  As  the  war  proceeds,  doubtless 
Teuton  ingenuity  will  be  responsible  for  the  appear- 
ance of  new  types,  as  well  as  certain  modifications 
in  the  detail  construction  of  the  existing  machines, 
but  there  is  every  indication  that  the  broad  lines  of 
Etrich's  conception  will  be  retained  in  all  mono- 
planes. 

There  is  one  point  in  which  Germany  has  excelled. 
Wood  is  not  employed  in  the  construction  of  these 
heavier-than-air  craft.     Steel  and  the  lighter  tough 


86   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

alloys  are  exclusively  used.  In  this  way  the  minimum 
of  weight  consistent  with  the  maximum  of  strength 
policy  is  carried  out.  Moreover  the  manufacture 
of  component  parts  is  facilitated  and  accelerated  to 
a  remarkable  degree  by  the  use  of  metal,  while  the 
tasks  of  fitting  and  repairing  are  notably  expedited 
by  the  practice  of  standardisation.  Germany  is 
also  manifesting  commendable  enterprise  in  the 
perfection  of  light  powerful  motors  for  these  dynamic 
machines.  The  latest  types  of  explosion-motors 
range  from  loo  to  150  horse-power  ;  the  advantages 
of  these  are  obvious. 

Upon  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  the  French 
possessed  an  enormous  number  and  variety  of 
aeroplanes  and  this  aerial  fleet  had  been  brought 
to  a  high  standard  of  organisation.  The  aerial  fleet 
is  sub-divided  into  squadrons  called  "  escadrilles/' 
each  of  which  comprises  six  machines  and  pilots. 
These  units  are  kept  up  to  strength,  wastage  being 
made  up  from  reserves,  so  as  to  maintain  the  re- 
quisite homogeneity. 

But  ere  the  war  had  been  in  progress  many  weeks 
an  oflicial  order  was  issued  forbidding  the  employ- 
ment of  the  Bleriot,  Deperdussin,  Nieuport,  and 
R.E.P.  monoplanes.  Those  which  received  official 
approval  included  the  Caudron,  Henry,  and  Maurice 
Farman,  Morane-Saulnier,  and  Voisin  machines. 

This  drastic  order  came  somewhat  as  a  thunder- 
bolt, and  the  reason  for  the  decree  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily revealed.    Suffice  to  say  that  in  one  stroke 


FRENCH  TYPES  87 

the  efficiency  and  numerical  strength  of  the  French 
aerial  navy  were  reduced  very  appreciably.  For 
instance,  it  is  stated  that  there  were  thirty  escad- 
rilles  of  Bleriot  monoplanes  together  with  pilots 
at  the  front,  in  addition  to  thirty  mixed  escadrilles 
of  the  other  prohibited  types  with  their  fliers. 
Moreover  a  round  33  escadrilles  of  all  the  various 
types  were  in  reserve.  The  effect  of  the  military 
order  was  to  reduce  the  effective  strength  by  no 
fewer  than  558  aeroplanes. 

Seeing  that  the  French  aerial  force  was  placed 
at  a  great  disadvantage  numerically  by  this  action, 
there  seems  to  be  ample  justification  for  the  hostile 
criticism  which  the  decree  of  prohibition  aroused  in 
certain  circles,  especially  when  it  is  remembered 
that  there  was  not  an  equal  number  of  the  accepted 
machines  available  to  take  the  place  of  those  which 
had  been  ruled  out  of  court.  One  effect  of  this 
decree  was  to  throw  some  400  expert  aviators  upon 
the  waiting  list  for  the  simple  reason  that  machines 
were  unavailable.  Some  of  the  best  aviation  skill 
and  knowledge  which  France  possesses  were  affected 
by  the  order.  It  is  stated  that  accomplished  aviators, 
such  as  V^drines,  were  unable  to  obtain  machines. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  ultimate  effect  of  the 
French  military  decree  was  to  reduce  the  number 
of  types  to  about  four,  each  of  which  was  allotted 
a  specific  duty.  But  whereas  three  different  bi- 
planes are  on  the  approved  list  there  is  only  one 
monoplane — the    Morane-Saulnier,    This    machine, 


88   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

however,  has  a  great  turn  of  speed,  and  it  is  also 
able  to  climb  at  a  very  fast  pace.  In  these  respects 
it  is  superior  to  the  crack  craft  of  Germany,  so  that 
time  after  time  the  latter  have  refused  battle  in 
the  skies,  and  have  hurried  back  to  their  lines. 

The  Morane-Saulnier  is  the  French  mosquito  craft 
of  the  air  and  like  the  insect,  it  is  avowedly  aggressive. 
In  fact,  its  duties  are  confined  to  the  work  of  chasing 
and  bringing  down  the  enemy,  for  which  work  its 
high  manoeuvring  capacity  is  excellently  adapted. 
Its  aggressive  armament  comprises  a  mitrailleuse. 
Unfortunately,  however,  the  factory  responsible 
for  the  production  of  this  machine  is  at  present 
handicapped  by  the  limitations  of  its  manufacturing 
plant,  which  when  pushed  to  the  utmost  extent 
cannot  turn  out  more  than  about  ten  machines 
per  week.  No  doubt  this  deficiency  will  be  remedied 
as  the  war  proceeds  by  extension  of  the  works  or 
by  allotting  orders  to  other  establishments,  but  at 
the  time  of  the  decree  the  manufacturing  capacity 
was  scarcely  sufficient  to  make  good  the  wastage, 
which  was  somewhat  heavy. 

As  far  as  biplanes  are  concerned  the  Caudron  is 
the  fastest  in  flight  and  is  Ukewise  extremely  quick 
in  manoeuvring.  It  is  a  very  small  machine  and 
is  extremely  light,  but  the  fact  that  it  can  climb  at 
the  rate  of  over  330  feet  per  minute  is  a  distinct 
advantage  in  its  favour.  It  supplements  the  Morane- 
Saulnier  monoplane  in  the  specific  duty  of  the  latter, 
while  it  is  also  employed  for  discovering  the  enemy's 


RECONNAISSANCE  89 

artillery  and  communicating  the  range  of  the  latter 
to  the  French  and  British  artillery.  In  this  latter 
work  it  has  played  a  very  prominent  part  and  to 
it  is  due  in  no  small  measure  that  deadly  accuracy 
of  the  artillery  of  the  Allies  which  has  now  become 
so  famous.  This  applies  especially  to  those  tactics, 
where  the  field  artillery  dashes  up  to  a  position, 
discharges  a  number  of  rounds  in  rapid  succession, 
or  indulges  in  rafale  firing,  and  then  limbering  up, 
rushes  away  before  the  enemy  can  reply. 

As  is  well  known  the  Farman  biplanes  possess 
high  endurance  qualities.  They  can  remain  aloft 
for  many  hours  at  a  stretch  and  are  remarkably 
reliable.  Owing  to  these  qualities  they  are  utilised 
for  prolonged  and  searching  reconnoitring  duties 
such  as  strategical  reconnaissances  as  distinct  from 
the  hurried  and  tactical  reconnaissances  carried  out 
by  fleeter  machines.  While  they  are  not  so  speedy 
as  the  monoplanes  of  the  German  military  estabhsh- 
ment,  endurance  in  this  instance  is  preferable  to 
pace.  A  thorough  survey  of  the  enemy's  position 
over  the  whole  of  his  military  zone,  which  stretches 
back  for  a  distance  of  30  miles  or  so  from  the  outer 
line  of  trenches,  is  of  incalculable  value  to  a  com- 
mander who  is  contemplating  any  decisive  move- 
ment or  who  is  somewhat  in  doubt  as  to  the  precise 
character  of  his  antagonist's  tactics. 

The  French  aerial  fleet  has  been  particularly 
active  in  its  work  of  raiding  hostile  positions  and 
submitting  them  to  a  fusillade  of  bombs  from  the 


90   AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

clouds.  The  machine  which  is  allotted  this  specific 
task  is  the  Voisin  biplane.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  this  machine  is  able  to  carry  a  great  weight. 
It  was  speedily  discovered  that  in  bomb-raids  it 
is  essential  for  an  aeroplane  to  be  able  to  carry  a 
somewhat  large  supply  of  missiles,  owing  to  the 
high  percentage  of  misses  which  attends  these 
operations.  A  raid  by  a  machine  capable  of  carrying 
only,  say,  half-a-dozen  projectiles,  is  virtually  a 
waste  of  fuel,  and  the  endurance  limitations  of  the 
fast  machines  reacts  against  their  profitable  use 
in  this  work.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  the 
Voisin  machine  is  able  to  carry  a  large  supply  of 
bombs  renders  it  an  ideal  craft  for  this  purpose ; 
hence  the  official  decision  to  confine  it  to  this  work. 
So  far  as  the  British  efforts  in  aerial  work  are 
concerned  there  is  no  such  display  of  rigid  selection 
as  characterises  the  practice  of  the  French  and  Ger- 
man military  authorities.  Britain's  position  in  the 
air  has  been  extensively  due  to  private  enterprise, 
and  this  is  still  being  encouraged.  Moreover  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war  Britain  was  numerically 
far  inferior  both  to  her  antagonist  and  to  her  ally. 
Consequently  it  was  a  wise  move  to  encourage  the 
private  manufacture  of  machines  which  had  already 
established  their  value.  The  consequence  is  that 
a  variety  of  machines  figure  in  the  British  aerial 
navy.  Private  initiative  is  excellently  seconded 
by  the  Government  manufacturing  aeroplane  fac- 
tory, while  the  training  of  pilots  is  likewise  being 


BRITISH  TYPES  91 

carried  out  upon  a  comprehensive  scale.  British 
manufacture  may  be  divided  into  two  broad  classes 
— the  production  of  aeroplanes  and  of  waterplanes 
respectively.  Although  there  is  a  diversity  of 
types  there  is  a  conspicuous  homogeneity  for  the 
most  part,  as  was  evidenced  by  the  British  raid 
carried  out  on  February  11-12,  when  a  fleet  of  34 
machines  raided  the  various  German  miHtary 
centres  established  along  the  coast  of  Flanders. 

Considerable  secrecy  has  been  displayed  by  the 
British  Government  concerning  the  types  of  machines 
that  are  being  utilised,  although  ample  evidence 
exists  from  the  producing  activity  of  the  various 
establishments  that  all  available  types  which  have 
demonstrated  their  reliability  and  efficiency  are 
being  turned  to  useful  purpose.  The  Avro  and 
Sopwith  warplanes  with  their  very  high  speeds  have 
proved  remarkably  successful. 

So  far  as  manufacturing  is  concerned  the  Royal 
Aerial  Factory  may  be  said  to  constitute  the  back- 
bone of  the  British  aerial  fleet.  This  factory 
fulfils  various  purposes.  It  is  not  only  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  machines,  and  the  development 
of  aeroplanes  for  specific  duties,  but  also  carries  out 
the  inspection  and  testing  of  machines  built  by 
private  firms.  Every  machine  is  submitted  to  an 
exacting  test  before  it  is  passed  into  the  service. 

Three  broad  types  of  Government  machines  are 
manufactured  at  this  establishment.  There  is  that 
designed  essentially  for  scouting  operations,  in  which 


92   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

speed  is  the  all-important  factor  and  which  is  of  the 
tractor  type.  Another  is  the  "  Reconnoitring " 
machine  known  officially  as  the  *'  R.E."  to-day, 
but  formerly  as  the  "  B.E."  (Bldriot-Experimental) , 
a  considerable  number  of  which  are  in  commission. 
This  machine  is  also  of  the  tractor  type,  carrying 
a  pilot  and  an  observer,  and  has  a  maximum  speed  of 
40-50  miles  per  hour.  If  required  it  can  further  be 
fitted  with  an  automatic  gun  for  defence  and  attack. 
The  third  craft  is  essentially  a  fighting  machine. 
Owing  to  the  introduction  of  the  machine-gun 
which  is  fixed  in  the  prow,  with  the  marksman 
immediately  behind  it,  the  screw  is  placed  at  the 
rear.  The  pilot  has  his  seat  behind  the  gunner. 
The  outstanding  feature  of  these  machines  is  the 
high  factor  of  safety,  which  attribute  has  astonished 
some  of  the  foremost  aviation  experts  in  the  world. 

Great  Britain  lagged  behind  her  Continental  rivals 
in  the  development  of  the  Fourth  Arm,  especially 
in  matters  pertaining  to  motive  power.  For  some 
time  reliance  was  placed  upon  foreign  light  high- 
speed explosion  motors,  but  private  enterprise  was 
encouraged,  with  the  result  that  British  motors 
comparing  favourably  in  every  respect  with  the  best 
productions  upon  the  Continent  are  now  available. 
Development  is  still  proceeding,  and  there  is  every 
evidence  that  in  the  near  future  entire  reliance  will 
be  placed  upon  the  native  motor. 

Undoubtedly,  as  the  war  progresses,  many  valu- 
able lessons  will  be  learned  which  will  exercise  an 


PROBLEMS  OF  AERONAUTICS    93 

important  bearing  upon  the  design  and  construction 
of  warplanes.  The  ordeals  to  which  the  machines 
are  submitted  in  miUtary  duties  are  far  more  severe 
than  any  imposed  by  the  conditions  of  commerce. 
Accordingly  there  is  every  indication  that  the 
conflict  upon  the  Continent  will  represent  a  distinctive 
epoch  in  aeroplane  design  and  construction.  Many 
problems  still  await  solution,  such  as  the  capacity 
to  hover  over  a  position,  and  it  is  quite  possible 
that  these  complex  and  baffling  questions  will  be 
settled  definitely  as  the  result  of  operations  in  the 
field.  The  aeroplane  has  reached  a  certain  stage  of 
evolution :  further  progress  is  virtually  impossible 
unless  something  revolutionary  is  revealed,  perfected, 
and  brought  to  the  practical  stage. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SCOUTING  FROM  THE   SKIES 

From  the  moment  when  human  flight  was  lifted 
from  the  rut  of  experiment  to  the  field  of  practical 
application,  many  theories,  interesting  and  illumina- 
ting, concerning  the  utihty  of  the  Fourth  Arm  as  a 
mihtary  unit  were  advanced.  The  general  con- 
sensus of  expert  opinion  was  that  the  flying  machine 
would  be  useful  to  glean  information  concerning  the 
movements  of  an  enemy,  rather  than  as  a  weapon 
of  offence. 

The  war  is  substantiating  this  argument  very 
completely.  Although  bomb-dropping  is  practised 
somewhat  extensively,  the  results  achieved  are 
rather  moral  than  material  in  their  effects.  Here 
and  there  startling  successes  have  been  recorded, 
especially  upon  the  British  side,  but  these  triumphs 
are  outnumbered  by  the  failures  in  this  direction, 
and  merely  serve  to  emphasise  the  views  of  the 
theorists. 

The  argument  was  also  advanced  that,  in  this 
particular  work,  the  aeroplane  would  prove  more 

94 


FIRST  MILITARY  ESSAYS        95 

valuable  than  the  dirigible,  but  actual  campaigning 
has  proved  conclusively  that  the  dirigible  and  the 
heavier-than-air  machines  have  their  respective 
fields  of  utility  in  the  capacity  of  scouts.  In  fact, 
in  the  very  earliest  days  of  the  war,  the  British 
airships,  though  small  and  slow  in  movement, 
proved  more  serviceable  for  this  duty  than 
their  dynamic  consorts.  This  result  was  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  miUtary  strategy  and  tactics 
were  somewhat  nonplussed  by  the  appearance  of 
this  new  factor.  At  the  time  it  was  an  entirely 
unknown  quantity.  It  is  true  that  aircraft  had 
been  employed  in  the  Balkan  and  the  Italo-Ottoman 
campaigns,  but  upon  such  a  limited  scale  as  to 
afford  no  comprehensive  idea  of  their  miUtary  value 
and  possibilities. 

The  beUigerents,  therefore,  were  caught  somewhat 
at  a  disadvantage,  and  an  appreciable  period  of 
time  elapsed  before  the  significance  of  the  atrial 
force  could  be  appreciated,  while  means  of  counter- 
acting or  nullifying  its  influences  had  to  be  evolved 
simultaneously,  and  according  to  the  exigencies  of 
the  moment.  At  all  events,  the  protagonists  were 
somewhat  loth  to  utilise  the  dirigible  upon  an 
elaborate  scale  or  in  an  aggressive  manner.  It 
was  employed  more  after  the  fashion  of  a  captive 
balloon,  being  sent  aloft  from  a  point  well  behind  the 
front  lines  of  the  force  to  which  it  was  attached, 
and  well  out  of  the  range  of  hostile  guns.  Its 
manoeuvres  were  somewhat  circumscribed,  and  were 


96   AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

carried  out  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  enemy, 
dependence  being  placed  upon  the  advantages  of  an 
elevated  position  for  the  gathering  of  information. 

But  as  the  campaign  progressed,  the  airships 
became  more  daring.  Their  ability  to  soar  to  a 
great  height  offered  them  complete  protection  against 
gun-fire,  and  accordingly  sallies  over  the  hostile 
lines  were  carried  out.  But  even  here  a  certain 
hesitancy  became  manifest.  This  was  perfectly 
excusable,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  dirigible, 
above  all,  is  a  fair-weather  craft,  and  disasters, 
which  had  overtaken  these  vessels  time  after  time, 
rendered  prudence  imperative.  Moreover,  but  little 
was  known  of  the  range  and  destructiveness  of  anti- 
aircraft guns. 

In  the  duty  of  reconnoitring  the  dirigible  possesses 
one  great  advantage  over  its  heavier-than-air  rival. 
It  can  remain  virtually  stationary  in  the  air,  the 
propellers  revolving  at  just  sufficient  speed  to  off-set 
the  wind  and  tendencies  to  drift.  In  other  words,  it 
has  the  power  of  hovering  over  a  position,  thereby 
enabling  the  observers  to  complete  their  task  care- 
fully and  with  deliberation. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  means  of  enabling  an 
aeroplane  to  hover  still  remain  to  be  discovered. 
It  must  travel  at  a  certain  speed  through  the  air  to 
maintain  its  dynamic  equilibrium,  and  this  speed 
is  often  too  high  to  enable  the  airman  to  complete 
his  reconnaissance  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  be  of 
value  to  the  forces  below.     All  that  the  aeroplane 


HOVERING  97 

can  do  is  to  circle  above  a  certain  position  until  the 
observer  is  satisfied  with  the  data  he  has  collected. 

But  hovering  on  the  part  of  the  dirigible  is  not 
without  conspicuous  drawbacks.  The  work  of 
observation  cannot  be  conducted  with  any  degree  of 
accuracy  at  an  excessive  altitude.  Experience  has 
proved  that  the  range  of  the  latest  types  of  anti- 
aircraft weapons  is  in  excess  of  anticipations.  The 
result  is  that  the  airship  is  useless  when  hovering 
beyond  the  zone  of  fire.  The  atmospheric  haze, 
even  in  the  clearest  weather,  obstructs  the  observer's 
vision.  The  caprices  of  this  obstacle  are  extra- 
ordinary, as  anyone  who  has  indulged  in  ballooning 
knows  fully  well.  On  a  clear  summer's  day  I  have 
been  able  to  see  the  ground  beneath  with  perfect 
distinctness  from  a  height  of  4,500  feet,  yet  when 
the  craft  had  ascended  a  further  two  or  three  hundred 
feet,  the  panorama  was  blurred.  A  film  of  haze  lies 
between  the  balloon  and  the  ground  beneath.  And 
the  character  of  this  haze  is  continually  changing, 
so  that  the  aerial  observer's  task  is  rendered  addi- 
tionally difficult.  Its  effects  are  particularly  notice- 
able when  one  attempts  to  photograph  the  view 
unfolded  below.  Plate  after  plate  may  be  exposed 
and  nothing  will  be  revealed.  Yet  at  a  shghtly 
lower  altitude  the  plates  may  be  exposed  and 
perfectly  sharp  and  well-defined  images  will  be 
obtained. 

Seeing  that  the  photographic  eye  is  keener  and 
more  searching  than  the  human  organ   of  sight, 

H 


98   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

it  is  obvious  that  this  haze  constitutes  a  very  for- 
midable obstacle.  German  military  observers,  who 
have  accompanied  the  Zeppelins  and  Parsevals  on 
numerous  aerial  journeys  under  varying  conditions 
of  weather,  have  repeatedly  drawn  attention  to 
this  factor  and  its  caprices,  and  have  not  hesitated 
to  venture  the  opinion  that  it  would  interfere 
seriously  with  military  aerial  reconnaissances,  and 
also  that  it  would  tend  to  render  such  work 
extremely  hazardous  at  times. 

When  these  conditions  prevail  the  dirigible  must 
carry  out  its  work  upon  the  broad  lines  of  the 
aeroplane.  It  must  descend  to  the  level  where  a 
clear  view  of  the  ground  may  be  obtained,  and 
in  the  interests  of  safety  it  has  to  keep  on  the  move. 
To  attempt  to  hover  within  4,000  feet  of  the  ground 
is  to  court  certain  disaster,  inasmuch  as  the  vessel 
offers  a  magnificent  and  steady  target  which  the 
average  gunner,  equipped  with  the  latest  sighting 
devices  and  the  most  recent  types  of  guns,  scarcely 
could  fail  to  hit. 

But  the  airman  in  the  aeroplane  is  able  to  descend 
to  a  comparatively  low  level  in  safety.  The  speed 
and  mobility  of  his  machine  constitute  his  protection. 
He  can  vary  his  altitude,  perhaps  only  thirty  or 
forty  feet,  with  ease  and  rapidity,  and  this  erratic 
movement  is  more  than  sufficient  to  perplex  the 
marksmen  below,  although  the  airman  is  endangered 
if  a  rafale  is  fired  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cover  a 
wide  zone. 


RECONNOITRING  99 

Although  the  aeroplane  may  travel  rapidly  it 
is  not  too  fleet  for  a  keen  observer  who  is  skilled  in 
his  peculiar  task.  He  may  only  gather  a  rough 
idea  of  the  disposition  of  troops,  their  movements, 
the  lines  of  communication,  and  other  details  which 
are  indispensable  to  his  commander,  but  in  the  main 
the  intelligence  will  be  fairly  accurate.  Undulating 
flight  enables  him  to  determine  speedily  the  altitude 
at  which  he  is  able  to  obtain  the  clearest  views  of 
the  country  beneath.  Moreover,  owing  to  his  speed 
he  is  able  to  complete  his  task  in  far  less  time 
than  his  colleague  operating  in  the  dirigible,  the 
result  being  that  the  information  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  his  superior  officers  is  more  to  the  moment, 
and  accordingly  of  greater  value. 

Reconnoitring  by  aeroplane  may  be  divided  into 
two  broad  categories,  which,  though  correlated  to  a 
certain  degree,  are  distinctive,  because  each  consti- 
tutes a  specific  phase  in  military  operations.  They  are 
known  respectively  as  "  tactical  "  and  ''  strategical  " 
movements.  The  first  is  somewhat  limited  in  its 
scope  as  compared  with  the  latter,  and  has  invariably 
to  be  carried  out  rapidly,  whereas  the  strategical 
reconnaissance  may  occupy  several  hours. 

The  tactical  reconnaissance  concerns  the  corps 
or  divisional  commander  to  which  the  warplane  is 
attached,  and  consequently  its  task  is  confined 
to  the  observation  of  the  line  immediately  facing 
the  particular  corps  or  division.  The  aviator 
does  not  necessarily  penetrate  beyond  the  lines  of 

H  2 


100    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

the  enemy,  but,  as  a  rule  limits  his  flight  to  some 
distance  from  his  outermost  defences.  The  airman 
must  possess  a  quick  eye,  because  his  especial  duty 
is  to  note  the  disposition  of  the  troops  immediately 
facing  him,  the  placing  of  the  artillery,  and  any 
local  movements  of  the  forces  that  may  be  in  progress. 
Consequently  the  aviator  engaged  on  this  service 
may  be  absent  from  his  lines  for  only  a  few  minutes, 
comparatively  speaking ;  the  intelligence  he  acquires 
must  be  speedily  communicated  to  the  force  to 
which  he  is  attached,  because  it  may  influence 
a  local  movement. 

The  strategical  reconnaissance,  on  the  other  hand, 
affects  the  whole  plan  of  campaign.  The  aviators 
told  off  for  this  duty  are  attached  to  the  staff  of 
the  Commander-in-Chief,  and  the  work  has  to  be 
carried  out  upon  a  far  more  comprehensive  and 
elaborate  scale,  while  the  airmen  are  called  upon 
to  penetrate  well  into  the  hostile  territory  to  a 
point  thirty,  forty,  or  more  miles  beyond  the 
outposts. 

The  procedure  is  to  instruct  the  flier  either  to 
carry  out  his  observations  of  the  territory  generally, 
or  to  report  at  length  upon  a  specified  stretch  of 
country.  In  the  latter  event  he  may  fly  to  and  fro 
over  the  area  in  question  until  he  has  acquired  all 
the  data  it  is  possible  to  collect.  His  work  not 
only  comprises  the  general  disposition  of  troops, 
defences,  placing  of  artillery,  points  where  reserves 
are  being  held,  high-roads,  railways,  base    camps. 


TRIALS  OF  THE  AIRMAN       loi 

and  so  forth,  but  he  is  also  instructed  to  bring  back 
as  correct  an  idea  as  possible  of  what  the  enemy 
proposes  to  do,  so  that  his  Commander-in-Chief 
may  adjust  his  moves  accordingly.  In  order  to 
perform  this  task  with  the  requisite  degree  of 
thoroughness  it  is  often  necessary  for  the  airman  to 
remain  in  the  air  for  several  hours  continuously, 
not  returning,  in  fact,  until  he  has  completed  the 
allotted  duty. 

The  airman  engaged  in  strategical  aerial  recon- 
naissance must  possess,  above  all  things,  what  is 
known  as  a  "  military  "  eye  concerning  the  country 
he  traverses.  He  must  form  tolerably  correct 
estimates  of  the  forces  beneath  and  their  character. 
He  must  possess  the  ability  to  read  a  map  rapidly 
as  he  moves  through  the  air  and  to  note  upon  it 
all  information  which  is  likely  to  be  of  service  to  the 
General  Staff.  The  ability  to  prepare  military 
sketches  rapidly  and  intelligibly  is  a  valuable 
attribute,  and  skill  in  aerial  photography  is  a 
decidedly  useful  acquisition. 

Such  men  must  be  of  considerable  stamina, 
inasmuch  as  great  demands  are  made  upon  their 
powers  of  endurance.  Being  aloft  for  several  hours 
imposes  a  severe  tax  upon  the  nervous  system, 
while  it  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  sorts  and 
conditions  of  weather  are  likely  to  be  encountered, 
more  particularly  during  the  winter.  Hail,  rain, 
and  blizzards  may  be  experienced  in  turn,  while  the 
extreme  cold  which  often  prevails  in  the  higher 


102    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

altitudes  during  the  winter  season  is  a  fearful 
enemy  to  combat.  Often  an  airman  upon  his  return 
from  such  a  reconnaissance  has  been  discovered  to 
be  so  numbed  and  dazed  as  a  result  of  the  prolonged 
exposure,  that  considerable  time  has  elapsed  before 
he  has  been  sufficiently  restored  to  set  forth  the 
results  of  his  observations  in  a  coherent,  intelligible 
manner  for  the  benefit  of  the  General  Staff.  Under 
these  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  most 
skilful  and  experienced  aviators  are  generally 
reserved  for  this  particular  work.  In  addition  to 
the  natural  accidents  to  which  the  strategical  aerial 
observer  is  exposed,  the  dangers  arising  from 
hostile  gun-fire  must  not  be  overlooked.  He  is 
manoeuvring  the  whole  time  over  the  enemy's  firing 
zone,  where  anti-aircraft  weapons  are  disposed 
strategically,  and  where  every  effort  is  made  by 
artillery  to  bring  him  down,  or  compel  him  to  repair 
to  such  a  height  as  to  render  observation  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy  well-nigh  impossible. 

The  methods  practised  by  the  German  aerial  scout 
vary  widely,  and  are  governed  in  no  small  measure 
by  the  intrepidity  and  skill  of  the  airman  himself. 
One  practice  is  to  proceed  alone  upon  long  flights 
over  the  enemy's  lines,  penetrating  just  as  far  into 
hostile  territory  as  the  pilot  considers  advisable,  and 
keeping,  of  course,  within  the  limits  of  the  radius 
of  action  of  the  machine,  as  represented  by  the  fuel 
supply,  the  while  carefully  taking  mental  stock  of 
all  that  he  observes  below.     It  is  a  kind  of  roving 


AERIAL  SKIRMISHING  103 

commission  without  any  definite  aim  in  view  beyond 
the  collection  of  general  intelligence. 

This  work,  while  productive  and  valuable  to  a 
certain  degree,  is  attended  with  grave  danger,  as  the 
German  airmen  have  repeatedly  found  to  their  cost. 
Success  is  influenced  very  materially  by  the  accuracy 
of  the  airman's  judgment.  A  slight  miscalculation 
of  the  velocity  and  direction  of  the  wind,  or  failure  to 
detect  any  variations  in  the  climatic  conditions,  is 
sufficient  to  prove  his  undoing.  German  airmen 
who  essayed  journeys  of  discovery  in  this  manner, 
often  failed  to  regain  their  lines  because  they 
ventured  too  far,  misjudged  the  speed  of  the  wind 
which  was  following  them  on  the  outward  run,  and 
ultimately  were  forced  to  earth  owing  to  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  fuel  supply  during  the  homeward 
trip ;  the  increased  task  imposed  upon  the  motor, 
which  had  to  battle  hard  to  make  headway,  caused 
the  fuel  consumption  per  mile  to  exceed  calcula- 
tions. 

Then  the  venturesome  airman  cannot  neglect 
another  factor  which  is  adverse  to  his  success. 
Hostile  airmen  lie  in  wait,  and  a  fleet  of  aeroplanes 
is  kept  ready  for  instant  service.  They  permit 
the  invader  to  penetrate  well  into  their  territory 
and  then  ascend  behind  him  to  cut  off  his  retreat. 
True,  the  invader  has  the  advantage  of  being  on 
the  wing,  while  the  ether  is  wide  and  deep,  with- 
out any  defined  channels  of  communication.  But 
nine  times  out   of  ten  the   adventurous   scout   is 


104    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

trapped.  His  chances  of  escape  are  slender,  because 
his  antagonists  dispose  themselves  strategically  in 
the  air.  The  invader  outpaces  one,  but  in  so  doing 
comes  within  range  of  another.  He  is  so  harassed 
that  he  either  has  to  give  fight,  or,  finding  his  retreat 
hopelessly  cut  off,  he  makes  a  det.^rmined  dash, 
trusting  to  his  high  speed  to  carry  him  to  safety. 
In  these  driving  tactics  the  French  and  British 
airmen  have  proved  thomselves  adepts,  more  par- 
ticularly the  latter,  as  the  chase  appeals  to  their 
sporting  instincts.  There  is  nothing  so  exhilarating 
as  a  quarry  who  displays  a  determination  to  run  the 
gauntlet. 

The  roving  Teuton  scout  was  considerably  in 
evidence  in  the  early  days  of  the  war,  but  two  or 
three  weeks'  experience  emphasised  the  sad  fact 
that,  in  aerial  strategy,  he  was  hopelessly  outmatched 
by  his  opponents.  His  advantage  of  speed  was 
nullified  by  the  superior  tactical  and  strategical 
acumen  of  his  antagonists,  the  result  being  that 
the  German  airman,  who  has  merely  been  trained 
along  certain  lines,  who  is  in  many  cases  nothing 
more  than  a  cog-wheel  in  a  machine,  and  who  is 
proverbially  slow-witted,  has  concluded  that  he 
is  no  match  for  the  airmen  of  the  Allies.  He  found 
from  bitter  experience  that  nothing  afforded  the 
Anglo-French  military  aviators  such  keen  delight 
as  to  lie  in  wait  for  a  "  rover,"  and  then  to  swoop 
into  the  air  to  round  him  up. 

The  proportion  of  these  individual  scouts  who 


BRITISH  ASCENDANCY  105 

were  either  brought  down,  or  only  just  succeeded 
in  reaching  safety  within  their  own  hues,  and  who 
were  able  to  exhibit  serious  wounds  as  evidence 
of  the  severity  of  the  aerial  tussle,  or  the  narrowness 
of  the  escape,  has  unnerved  the  Teuton  airmen  as 
a  body  to  a  very  considerable  extent.  Often,  even 
when  an  aeroplane  descended  within  the  German 
lines,  it  was  found  that  the  roving  airman  had  paid 
the  penalty  for  his  rashness  with  his  life,  so  that  his 
journey  had  proved  in  vain,  because  all  the  intelli- 
gence he  had  gained  had  died  with  him,  or,  if 
committed  to  paper,  was  so  unintelligible  as  to 
prove  useless. 

It  was  the  success  of  the  British  airmen  in  this 
particular  field  of  duty  which  was  responsible  for 
the  momentous  declaration  in  Field-Marshal  Sir 
John  French's  famous  despatch  : — "  The  British 
Flying  Corps  has  succeeded  in  establishing  an 
individual  ascendancy,  which  is  as  serviceable  to 
us  as  it  is  damaging  to  the  .enemy  ....  The  enemy 
have  been  less  enterprising  in  their  flights.  Some- 
thing in  the  direction  of  the  mastery  of  the  air  has 
already  been  gained." 

The  methods  of  the  British  airmen  are  in  vivid 
contrast  to  the  practice  of  the  venturesome  Teuton 
aerial  rovers  described  above.  While  individual 
flights  are  undertaken  they  are  not  of  unknown 
duration  or  mileage.  The  man  is  given  a  definite 
duty  to  perform  and  he  ascends  merely  to  fulfil  it, 
returning    with    the    information    at    the    earhest 


io6    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

possible  moment.  It  is  atrial  scouting  with  a 
method.  The  intelUgence  is  required  and  obtained 
for  a  specific  purpose,  to  govern  a  contemplated 
move  in  the  grim  game  of  war. 

Even  then  the  flight  is  often  undertaken  by  two 
or  more  airmen  for  the  purpose  of  checking 
and  counterchecking  information  gained,  or  to 
ensure  such  data  being  brought  back  to  headquarters, 
since  it  is  quite  possible  that  one  of  the  party  may 
fall  a  victim  to  hostile  fire.  By  operating  upon 
these  lines  there  is  very  little  likelihood  of  the 
mission  proving  a  complete  failure.  Even  when 
raids  upon  certain  places  such  as  Diisseldorf, 
Friedrichshafen  or  Cuxhaven  are  planned,  complete 
dependence  is  not  placed  on  one  individual.  The 
machine  is  accompanied,  so  that  the  possibility  of 
the  appointed  task  being  consummated  is  trans- 
formed almost  into  a  certainty. 

The  French  flying  men  work  upon  broadly 
similar  lines.  Their  fleet  is  divided  into  small 
squadrons  each  numbering  four,  six,  or  more 
machines,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  contem- 
plated task.  Each  airman  is  given  an  area  of 
territory  which  is  to  be  reconnoitred  thoroughly. 
In  this  way  perhaps  one  hundred  or  more  miles  of 
the  enemy's  front  are  searched  for  information  at 
one  and  the  same  time.  The  units  of  the  squadron 
start  out,  each  taking  the  appointed  direction 
according  to  the  preconceived  plan,  and  each 
steering  by  the  aid  of  compass  and  map.    They  are 


THE  OBSERVER'S  DUTIES      107 

urged  to  complete  the  work  with  all  speed  and  to 
return  to  a  secret  rendezvous. 

Later  the  air  is  alive  with  the  whirring  of  motors. 
The  machines  are  coming  back  and  all  converging  to 
one  point.  They  vol-plane  to  the  earth  and  grace- 
fully settle  down  within  a  short  distance  of  each 
other  at  the  rendezvous.  The  pilots  collect  and 
each  relates  the  intelligence  he  has  gained.  The 
data  are  collated  and  in  this  manner  the  General  Staff 
is  able  to  learn  exactly  what  is  transpiring  over  a 
long  stretch  of  the  hostile  lines,  and  a  considerable 
distance  to  the  rear  of  his  advance  works.  Possibly 
five  hundred  square  miles  have  been  reconnoitred 
in  this  manner.  Troops  have  been  massed  here, 
lines  of  communication  extend  somewhere  else, 
while  convoys  are  moving  at  a  third  place.  But  all 
has  been  observed,  and  the  commanding  officer  is  in 
a  position  to  re-arrange  his  forces  accordingly.  It 
is  a  remarkable  example  of  method  in  military 
tactics  and  strategy,  and  conveys  a  striking  idea  of 
the  degree  to  which  aerial  operations  have  been 
organised. 

After  due  deliberation  it  is  decided  that  the 
convoys  shall  be  raided,  or  that  massed  troops  shall 
be  thrown  into  confusion,  if  not  dispersed.  The 
squadron  is  ordered  to  prepare  for  another  aerial 
journey.  The  roads  along  which  the  convoys  are 
moving  are  indicated  upon  the  map,  or  the  position 
of  the  massed  troops  in  bivouac  is  similarly  shown. 
The  airmen  load  their  machines  with  a  full  charge  of 


io8    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

bombs.  When  all  is  ready  the  leader  ascends, 
followed  in  rapid  succession  by  the  other  units, 
and  they  whirr  through  the  air  in  single  file.  It 
now  becomes  a  grim  game  of  foUow-my-leader. 

The  leader  detects  the  convoy,  swoops  down, 
suddenly  launches  his  missiles,  and  re-ascends. 
He  does  not  deviate  a  foot  from  his  path  to  observe 
the  effects  of  his  discharge,  as  the  succeeding  aero- 
plane is  close  behind  him.  If  the  leader  has  missed 
then  the  next  airman  may  correct  his  error.  One 
after  another  the  machines  repeat  the  manoeuvre, 
in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  units  of  a 
battleship  squadron  emulate  the  leading  vessel 
when  attacking  the  foe.  The  tactical  evolutions 
have  been  laid  down,  and  there  is  rigid  adherence 
thereto,  because  only  thereby  may  success  be 
achieved.  When  the  last  war-plane  has  completed 
its  work,  the  leader  swings  round  and  repeats  the 
dash  upon  the  foe.  A  hail  of  bullets  may  scream 
around  the  men  in  the  air,  but  one  and  all  follow 
faithfully  in  the  leader's  trail.  One  or  more  machines 
may  fail  in  the  attack,  and  may  even  meet  with 
disaster,  but  nothing  interferes  with  the  movements 
of  the  squadron  as  a  whole.  It  is  the  homogeneity 
of  the  attacking  fleet  which  tells,  and  which 
undermines  the  moral  of  the  enemy,  even  if  it 
does  not  wreak  decisive  material  devastation.  The 
work  accomplished  to  the  best  of  their  ability,  the 
airmen  speed  back  to  their  lines  in  the  same  forma- 
tion. 


AERIAL   SKETCHING  109 

At  first  sight  reconnoitring  from  aloft  may  appear 
a  simple  operation,  but  a  little  reflection  will  reveal 
the  difficulties  and  arduousness  of  the  work.  The 
observer,  whether  he  be  specially  deputed,  or  whether 
the  work  be  placed  in  the  hand  of  the  pilot  himself 
— in  this  event  the  operation  is  rendered  additionally 
trying,  as  he  also  has  to  attend  to  his  machine — • 
must  keep  his  eyes  glued  to  the  ground  beneath 
and  at  the  same  time  be  able  to  read  the  configuration 
of  the  panorama  revealed  to  him.  He  must  also 
keep  in  touch  with  his  map  and  compass,  so  as  to 
be  positive  of  his  position  and  direction.  He  must 
be  a  first-class  judge  of  distances  and  heights. 

When  flying  rapidly  at  a  height  of  4,000  feet  or 
more,  the  country  below  appears  as  a  perfect  plane, 
or  flat  stretch,  although  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  may  be 
extremely  undulating.  Consequently,  it  is  by  no 
means  a  simple  matter  to  distinguish  eminences 
and  depressions,  or  to  determine  the  respective  and 
relative  heights  of  hills. 

If  a  rough  sketch  is  required,  the  observer  must  be 
rapid  in  thought,  quick  in  determination,  and  facile 
with  his  pencil,  as  the  machine,  no  matter  how  it 
may  be  slowed  down,  is  moving  at  a  relatively  high 
speed.  He  must  consult  his  map  and  compass 
frequently,  since  an  airman  who  loses  his  bearings 
is  useless  to  his  commander-in-chief.  He  must 
have  an  eagle  eye,  so  as  to  be  able  to  search  the 
country  unfolded  below,  in  order  to  gather  all  the 
information  which  is  likely  to  be  of  value  to  his 


no    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

superior  officers.  He  must  be  able  to  judge  accur- 
ately the  numbers  of  troops  arrayed  beneath  him, 
the  lines  of  the  defensive  works,  to  distinguish  the 
defended  from  the  dummy  lines  which  are  thrown  up 
to  baffle  him,  and  to  detect  instantly  the  movement 
of  the  troops  and  the  direction,  as  well  as  the  roads, 
along  which  they  are  proceeding.  Reserves  and 
their  complement,  artillery,  railway-lines,  roads,  and 
bridges,  if  any,  over  streams  and  railways  must  be 
noted  :  in  short  he  must  obtain  an  eye  photograph 
of  the  country  he  observes  and  grasp  exactly 
what  is  happening  there.  In  winter,  with  the 
thermometer  well  down,  a  blood-freezing  wind 
blowing,  wreaths  of  clouds  drifting  below  and 
obscuring  vision  for  minutes  at  a  time,  the  rain 
possibly  pelting  down  as  if  presaging  a  second 
deluge,  the  plight  of  the  vigilant  human  eye  aloft 
is  far  from  enviable. 

Upon  the  return  of  the  machine  to  its  base,  the 
report  must  be  prepared  without  delay.  The  picture 
recorded  by  the  eye  has  to  be  set  down  clearly  and 
intelhgibly  with  the  utmost  speed.  The  requisite 
indications  must  be  made  accurately  upon  the  map.. 
Nothing  of  importance  must  be  omitted  :  the  most 
trivial  detail  is  often  of  vital  importance. 

A  facile  pencil  is  of  inestimable  value  in  such 
operations.  While  aloft  the  observer  does  not  trust 
to  his  memory  or  his  eye  picture,  but  commits  the 
essential  factors  to  paper  in  the  form  of  a  code,  or 
what  may  perhaps  be  described  more  accurately 


MESSAGES  FROM  THE  AIR     iii 

as  a  shorthand  pictorial  interpretation  of  the  things 
he  has  witnessed.  To  the  man  in  the  street  such  a 
record  would  be  unintelligible,  but  it  is  pregnant 
with  meaning,  and  when  worked  out  for  the  guidance 
of  the  superior  officers  is  a  mass  of  invaluable 
detail. 

At  times  it  so  happens  that  the  airman  has  not 
been  able  to  complete  his  duty  within  the  time 
anticipated  by  those  below.  But  he  has  gathered 
certain  information  which  he  wishes  to  communicate 
without  coming  to  earth.  Such  data  may  be  dropped 
from  the  clouds  in  the  form  of  maps  or  messages. 
Although  wireless  telegraphy  is  available  for  this 
purpose,  it  suffers  from  certain  drawbacks.  If 
the  enemy  possesses  an  equipment  which  is  within 
range  of  that  of  the  air-craft  and  the  force  to  which 
it  belongs,  communications  may  be  nulhfied  by  the 
enemy  throwing  out  a  continuous  stream  of  useless 
signals  which  "  jamb "  the  intelligence  of  their 
opponents. 

If  a  message — ^written  in  code — or  a  map  is  to  be 
dropped  from  aloft  it  is  enclosed  within  a  special 
metallic  cylinder,  fitted  with  a  vane  tail  to  ensure 
direction  of  flight  when  launched,  and  with  a  de- 
tonating head.  This  is  dropped  overboard.  When 
it  strikes  the  ground  the  detonator  fires  a  charge 
which  emits  a  report  without  damaging  the  message- 
container,  and  at  the  same  time  fires  a  combustible 
charge  emitting  considerable  smoke.  The  noise 
attracts  anyone  in  the  vicinity  of  the  spot  where 


112    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

the  message  has  fallen,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
clouds  of  smoke  guide  one  to  the  point  and  enable 
the  cylinder  to  be  recovered.  This  device  is  ex- 
tensively used  by  the  German  aviators,  and  has 
proved  highly  serviceable ;  a  similar  contrivance 
is  adopted  by  French  airmen. 

There  is  one  phase  of  aerial  activity  which  remains 
to  be  demonstrated.  This  is  the  utilisation  of  aerial 
craft  by  the  defenders  of  a  besieged  position  such  as 
a  ring  of  fortifications  or  fortified  city.  The  utility 
of  the  Fourth  Arm  in  this  province  has  been  the 
subject  of  considerable  speculation.  Expert  opinion 
maintains  that  the  advantage  in  this  particular 
connection  would  rest  with  the  besiegers.  The 
latter  would  be  able  to  ascertain  the  character  of 
the  defences  and  the  defending  gun-force,  by  means 
of  the  aerial  scout,  who  would  prove  of  inestimable 
value  in  directing  the  fire  of  the  besieging  forces. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  maintained  that  an  aerial 
fleet  would  be  useless  to  the  beleaguered.  In  the 
first  place  the  latter  would  experience  grave  diffi- 
culties in  ascertaining  the  positions  of  the  attacking 
and  fortress-reducing  artillery,  inasmuch  as  this 
could  be  masked  effectively,  and  it  is  thought  that 
the  aerial  force  of  the  besieged  would  be  speedily 
reduced  to  impotence,  since  it  would  be  sub- 
jected to  an  effective  concentrated  fire  from  the 
ring  of  besieging  anti-aircraft  guns  and  other 
weapons.  In  other  words,  the  theory  prevails  that 
an  aerial  fleet,  no  matter  how  efficient,  would  be 


AIR-CRAFT  IN   SIEGES  113 

rendered  ineffective  for  the  simple  reason  that  it 
would  be  the  initial  object  of  the  besieger's  attack. 
Possibly  the  stern  test  of  experience  will  reveal 
the  fallacy  of  these  contentions  as  emphatically 
as  it  has  disproved  others.  But  there  is  one 
point  upon  which  authorities  are  unanimous.  If 
the  artillery  of  the  investing  forces  is  exposed  and 
readily  distinguishable,  the  aerial  forces  of  the 
beleaguered  will  bring  about  its  speedy  annihilation, 
as  the  defensive  artillery  will  be  concentrated  upon 
that  of  the  besiegers. 


CHAPTER    IX 

THE  AIRMAN   AND  ARTILLERY 

There  is  one  field  in  which  the  airman  has 
achieved  distinctive  triumphs.  This  is  in  the 
guidance  of  artillery  fire.  The  modern  battle 
depends  first  and  foremost  upon  the  fierce  effec- 
tiveness of  big-gun  assault,  but  to  ensure  this 
reliable  direction  is  imperative.  No  force  has 
proved  so  invaluable  for  this  purpose  as  the  man- 
of-the-air,  and  consequently  this  is  the  province  in 
which  he  has  been  exceptionally  and  successfully 
active. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  in  the  Japanese  investiture 
of  Port  Arthur  during  the  Russo-Japanese  war, 
thousands  of  lives  were  expended  upon  the  retention 
and  assault  of  203  Metre  Hill.  It  was  the  most 
blood-stained  spot  upon  the  whole  of  the  Eastern 
Asiatic  battlefield.  General  Nogi  threw  thousands 
after  thousands  of  his  warriors  against  this  rampart 
while  the  Russians  defended  it  no  less  resolutely. 
It  was  captured  and  re-captured ;  in  fact,  the 
fighting  round  this  eminence  was  so  intense  that  it 

"4 


203   METRE  HILL  115 

appeared  to  the  outsider  to  be  more  important  to 
both  sides  than  even  Port  Arthur  itself. 

Yet  if  General  Nogi  had  been  in  the  possession  of 
a  single  aeroplane  or  dirigible  it  is  safe  to  assert 
that  scarcely  one  hundred  Japanese  or  Russian 
soldiers  would  have  met  their  fate  upon  this  hill. 
Its  value  to  the  Japanese  lay  in  one  sole  factor. 
The  Japanese  heavy  guns  shelling  the  harbour  and 
the  fleet  it  contained  were  posted  upon  the  further 
side  of  this  eminence  and  the  fire  of  these  weapons 
was  more  or  less  haphazard.  No  means  of  directing 
the  artillery  upon  the  vital  points  were  available ; 
203  Metre  Hill  interrupted  the  line  of  sight.  The 
Japanese  thereupon  resolved  to  capture  the  hill, 
while  the  Russians,  equally  appreciative  of  the 
obstruction  it  offered  to  their  enemy,  as  valiantly 
strove  to  hold  it.  Once  the  hill  was  captured 
and  the  fire  of  the  Japanese  guns  could  be  directed, 
the  fate  of  the  fortress  was  sealed. 

Similar  conditions  have  prevailed  during  the 
present  campaign,  especially  in  the  western  theatre 
of  war,  where  the  ruggedness  of  the  country  has 
tended  to  render  artillery  fire  ineffective  and  expen- 
sive unless  efficiently  controlled.  When  the  German 
Army  attacked  the  line  of  the  British  forces  so 
vehemently  and  compelled  the  retreat  at  Mons, 
the  devastating  fire  of  the  enemy's  artillery  was 
directed  almost  exclusively  by  their  airmen,  who 
hovered  over  the  British  lines,  indicating  exactly 
the  point  where  gun-fire  could  work  the  maximum 

I  2 


ii6    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

of  havoc.  The  instant  concentration  of  massed 
artillery  fire  upon  the  indicated  positions  speedily 
rendered  one  position  after  another  untenable. 

The  Germans  maintained  the  upper  hand  until 
at  last  the  aerial  forces  of  the  British  Expeditionary 
Army  came  into  action.  These  airmen  attacked 
the  Teuton  atrial  craft  without  the  slightest  hesi- 
tation, and  in  a  short  while  rendered  cloudland 
absolutely  unhealthy.  The  sequel  was  interesting. 
As  if  suddenly  blinded,  the  German  artillery  fire 
immediately  deteriorated.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
British  artillery,  now  having  the  benefit  of  aSrial 
guidance,  was  able  to  repay  the  German  onslaughts 
with  interest,  and  speedily  compelled  that  elaborate 
digging-in  of  the  infantry  lines  which  has  now  become 
so  characteristic  of  the  opposing  forces. 

So  far  as  the  British  lines  are  concerned  the  men 
in  the  trenches  keep  a  sharp  look-out  for  hostile 
aeroplanes.  The  moment  one  is  observed  to  be 
advancing,  all  the  men  seclude  themselves  and 
maintain  their  concealment.  To  do  otherwise  is  to 
court  a  raking  artillery  outburst.  The  German 
aeroplane,  detecting  the  tendency  of  the  trenches, 
describes  in  the  air  the  location  of  the  vulnerable 
spot  and  the  precise  disposition  by  flying  immediately 
above  the  line.  Twice  the  manoeuvre  is  repeated, 
the  second  movement  evidently  being  in  the 
character  of  a  check  upon  the  first  observation, 
and  in  accordance  with  instructions,  whereupon 
the  Tommies,  to  quote  their  own  words,  "  know 


LOCATING  TROOPS  117 

they  are  in  for  it  !  "  Ere  the  aeroplane  has  com- 
pleted the  second  manoeuvre  the  German  guns 
ring  out. 

The  facility  with  which  artillery  fire  can  be  con- 
centrated through  the  medium  of  the  aeroplane  is 
amazing.  In  one  instance,  according  to  the  story 
related  to  me  by  an  officer,  "  a  number  of  our  men 
were  resting  in  an  open  field  immediately  behind  the 
second  line  of  trenches,  being  in  fact  the  reserves 
intended  for  the  relief  of  the  front  lines  during  the 
following  night.  An  aeroplane  hove  in  sight.  The 
men  dropped  their  kits  and  got  under  cover  in  an 
adjacent  wood.  The  aeroplane  was  flying  at  a 
great  height  and  evidently  laboured  under  the 
impression  that  the  kits  were  men.  Twice  it  flew 
over  the  field  in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  the 
storm  of  shrapnel,  '  Jack  Johnsons '  and  other 
tokens  from  the  Kaiser  rained  upon  the  confined 
space.  A  round  four  hundred  shells  were  dropped 
into  that  field  in  the  short  period  of  ten  minutes, 
and  the  range  was  so  accurate  that  no  single  shell 
feU  outside  the  space.  Had  the  men  not  hurried  to 
cover  not  one  would  have  been  left  alive  to  tell  the 
tale,  because  every  square  foot  of  the  land  was 
searched  through  and  through.  We  laughed  at  the 
short-sightedness  of  the  airman  who  had  contributed 
to  such  a  waste  of  valuable  shot  and  shell,  but  at 
the  same  time  appreciated  the  narrowness  of  our 
own   escape." 

The  above  instance  is  by  no  means  isolated.     It 


ii8    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

has  happened  time  after  time.  The  sHghtest  sign 
of  activity  in  a  trench  when  a  "  Taube  "  is  over- 
head suffices  to  cause  the  trench  to  be  blown  to 
fragments,  and  time  after  time  the  British  soldiers 
have  had  to  lie  prone  in  their  trenches  and  suffer 
partial  burial  as  an  alternative  to  being  riddled  by 
shrapnel. 

The  method  of  ascertaining  the  range  of  the  target 
from  the  indications  given  by  the  aeroplane  are 
of  the  simplest  character.  The  German  method  is 
for  the  aerial  craft  to  fly  over  the  position,  and  when 
in  vertical  line  therewith  to  discharge  a  handful  of 
tinsel,  which,  in  falling,  glitters  in  the  sunlight,  or 
to  launch  a  smoking  missile  which  answers  the  same 
purpose  as  a  projectile  provided  with  a  tracer. 
This  smoke-ball  being  dropped  over  the  position 
leaves  a  trail  of  black  or  whitish  smoke  according  to 
the  climatic  conditions  which  prevail,  the  object 
being  to  enable  the  signal  to  be  picked  up  with  the 
greatest  facility.  The  height  at  which  the  aerial 
•craft  is  flying  being  known,  a  little  triangulation 
upon  the  part  of  the  observer  at  the  firing  point 
enables  him  to  calculate  the  range  and  to  have  the 
guns  laid  accordingly. 

When  the  aerial  craft  has  been  entrusted  with  the 
especial  duty  of  directing  artillery-fire,  a  system  of 
communication  between  the  aerial  observer  and  the 
officer  in  charge  of  the  artillery  is  established, 
conducted,  of  course,  by  code.  In  the  British 
Army,  signalling  is  both  visual  and  audible.     In 


SMOKE   SIGNALS  119 

daylight  visual  signalling  is  carried  out  by  means 
of  coloured  flags  or  streamers  and  smoke-signals, 
while  audible  communication  is  effected  by  means  of 
a  powerful  horn  working  upon  the  siren  principle 
and  similar  to  those  used  by  automobiles.  Both 
flags  and  sound-signals,  however,  are  restricted 
owing  to  the  comparatively  short  distances  over 
which  they  can  be  read  with  any  degree  of  accuracy. 
The  smoke-signal  therefore  appears  to  be  the  most 
satisfactory  and  reliable,  as  the  German  airmen 
have  proved  conclusively,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  the  trail  of  smoke  may  be  picked  up  with 
comparative  ease,  even  at  a  distance,  by  means  of 
field  glasses.  The  tinsel  too,  is  readily  distin- 
guishable, particularly  in  bright  weather,  for  the 
glittering  surface,  catching  the  sun-light,  acts  some- 
what in  the  manner  of  a  heliograph. 

The  progress  of  the  airman  is  followed  by  two 
officers  at  the  base  from  which  he  started.  One 
is  equipped  with  the  director,  while  the  second  takes 
the  range.  Directly  this  has  been  found  as  a  result 
of  calculation,  the  guns  are  laid  ready  for  firing. 
In  those  cases  where  the  enemy's  artillery  is  concealed 
perhaps  behind  a  hill,  the  airman  is  of  incalculable 
value,  inasmuch  as  he  is  able  to  reveal  a  position 
which  otherwise  would  have  to  be  found  by  con- 
siderable haphazard  firing,  and  which,  even  if 
followed  by  a  captive  balloon  anchored  above  the 
firing  point,  might  resist  correction. 

The  accuracy  of  the  airman's  work  in  communi- 


120    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

eating  the  range  has  been  responsible  for  the  high 
efficiency  of  the  British  and  French  artillery.  The 
latter,  with  the  75  millimetre  quick-firing  gun,  is 
particularly  adapted  to  following  up  the  results  of 
the  aeroplane's,  reconnaissance,  especially  with  the 
system  of  rafale  fire,  because  the  whole  position  can 
be  searched  through  and  through  within  a  minute 
or  two.  According  to  information  which  has  been 
given  to  me  by  our  artillery  officers,  the  British 
system  also  has  proved  disastrous  to  the  enemy. 
The  practice  is  to  get  the  range  as  communicated 
by  the  aeroplane,  to  bring  the  artillery  into  position 
speedily,  to  discharge  salvo  after  salvo  with  all 
speed  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  to  wheel  the 
artillery  away  before  any  hostile  fire  can  be  returned. 
The  celerity  with  which  the  British  artillery  comes 
into,  and  goes  out  of,  action  has  astonished  even  our 
own  authorities.  This  mobility  is  of  unique  valile  : 
it  is  taking  advantage  of  a  somewhat  slow-witted 
enemy  with  interest.  By  the  time  the  Germans 
have  opened  fire  upon  the  point  whence  the  British 
guns  were  discharged,  the  latter  have  disappeared 
and  are  ready  to  let  fly  from  another  point,  some 
distance  away,  so  that  the  hostile  fire  is  abortive. 
Mobility  of  such  a  character  is  decidedly  unnerving 
and  baffiing  even  to  a  quick-witted  opponent. 

In  his  search  for  hostile  artillery  the  airman  runs 
grave  risks  and  displays  remarkable  resource.  It  is 
invariably  decided,  before  he  sets  out,  that  he  shall 
always  return  to  a  certain  altitude  to  communicate 


SIGNALLING  121 

signals.  Time  after  time  the  guns  of  the  enemy 
have  been  concealed  so  cunningly  from  aerial 
observation  as  to  pass  unnoticed.  This  trait  became 
more  pronounced  as  the  campaigns  of  the  Aisne 
progressed.  Accordingly  the  airman  adopts  a 
daring  procedure.  He  swoops  down  over  suspicious 
places,  where  he  thinks  guns  may  be  lurking,  hoping 
that  the  enemy  will  betray  its  presence.  The  ruse 
is  invariably  successful.  The  airman  makes  a 
sudden  dive  towards  the  earth.  The  soldiers  in 
hiding  below,  who  have  become  somewhat 
demoralised  by  the  accuracy  of  the  British  aerial 
bomb-throwers,  have  an  attack  of  nerves.  They 
open  a  spirited  fusillade  in  the  hope  of  bringing  the 
airman  to  earth.  But  their  very  excitement 
contributes  to  his  safety.  The  shots  are  fired 
without  careful  aim  and  expend  themselves  harm- 
lessly. Sweeping  once  more  upwards,  the  airman 
regains  the  pre-determined  level,  performs  a  certain 
evolution  in  the  air  which  warns  the  observer  at 
his  base  that  he  has  made  a  discovery,  and  promptly 
drops  his  guiding  signal  directly  over  the  point 
from  which  he  has  drawn  fire. 

Operations  at  night  are  conducted  by  means  of 
coloured  lights  or  an  electrical  searchlight  system. 
In  the  former  instance  three  lights  are  generally 
carried — white,  red,  and  green — each  of  which  has 
a  distinctive  meaning.  If  reliance  is  placed  upon  the 
electric  Hght  signalhng  lamp,  then  communications 
are  in  code.     But  night  operations  are  somewhat 


122    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

difficult  and  extremely  dangerous,  except  when 
the  elements  are  propitious.  There  is  the  ground 
mist  which  blots  everything  from  sight,  rendering 
reconnaissance  purely  speculative.  But  on  a  clear 
night  the  airman  is  more  likely  to  prove  successful. 
He  keeps  a  vigilant  eye  upon  all  ground-lights  and 
by  close  observation  is  able  to  determine  their 
significance.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  no  hghts 
of  any  description  are  permitted  in  the  advance 
trenches.  The  striking  of  a  match  may  easily 
betray  a  position  to  the  alert  eye  above. 

So  far  as  the  British  Army  is  concerned  a  complete 
code  is  in  operation  for  communicating  between 
aeroplanes  and  the  ground  at  night.  Vary's  lights 
are  used  for  this  purpose,  it  being  possible  to  dis- 
tinguish the  respective  colours  at  a  distance  of  six 
miles  and  from  an  altitude  of  2,000  feet.  The  lights 
are  used  both  by  the  aeroplane  and  the  battery 
of  artillery. 

The  code  is  varied  frequently,  but  the  following 
conveys  a  rough  idea  of  how  communication  is 
carried  out  by  this  means  under  cover  of  darkness. 
The  aeroplane  has  located  its  objective  and  has 
returned  to  the  pre-arranged  altitude.  A  red  light 
is  thrown  by  the  airman.  It  indicates  that  he  is 
directly  over  the  enemy's  position.  A  similarly 
coloured  light  is  shown  by  the  artillery  officer, 
which  intimates  to  the  airman  that  his  signal  has 
been  observed  and  that  the  range  has  been  taken. 

In  observing  the  effects  of  artillery  fire  a  code 


AERIAL  CODES  123 

of  signals  is  employed  between  the  airman  and  the 
artillery  officer  to  indicate  whether  the  shot  is 
"  long "  or  "  short/'  to  the  right  or  to  the  left 
of  the  mark,  while  others  intimate  whether  the  fuse 
is  correctly  timed  or  otherwise.  It  is  necessary  to 
change  the  code  fairly  frequently,  not  only  lest  it 
should  fall  into  the  enemy's  hands,  but  also  to 
baffle  the  hostile  forces ;  otherwise,  after  a  Httle 
experience,  the  latter  would  be  able  to  divine  the 
significance  of  the  signals,  and,  in  anticipation  of 
being  greeted  with  a  warm  fusillade,  would  complete 
hurried  arrangements  to  mitigate  its  effects,  if  not 
to  vacate  the  position  until  the  bombardment  had 
ceased. 

Sufficient  experience  has  already  been  gathered, 
however,  to  prove  the  salient  fact  that  the  airman 
is  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  direction 
and  control  of  artillery-fire.  Already  he  has  been 
responsible  for  a  re-arrangement  of  strategy  and 
tactics.  The  man  aloft  holds  such  a  superior  position 
as  to  defy  subjugation  ;  the  alternative  is  to  render 
his  work  more  difficult,  if  not  absolutely  impossible. 


CHAPTER  X 

BOMB-THROWING  FROM  AIR-CRAFT 

During  the  piping  times  of  peace  the  utiUty  of 
aircraft  as  weapons  of  offence  was  discussed  freely 
in  an  academic  manner.  It  was  urged  that  the 
usefulness  of  such  vessels  in  this  particular  field 
would  be  restricted  to  bomb-throwing.  So  far 
these  contentions  have  been  substantiated  during 
the  present  campaign.  At  the  same  time  it  was 
averred  that  even  as  a  bomb-thrower  the  ship  of  the 
air  would  prove  an  uncertain  quantity,  and  that 
the  results  achieved  would  be  quite  contrary  to 
expectations.  Here  again  theory  has  been  sup- 
ported by  practice,  inasmuch  as  the  damage  wrought 
by  bombs  has  been  comparatively  insignificant. 

The  Zeppelin  raids  upon  Antwerp  and  Britain  were 
a  fiasco  in  the  military  sense.  The  damage  inflicted 
by  the  bombs  was  not  at  all  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  explosive  used.  True,  in  the  case  of 
Antwerp,  it  demoralised  the  civilian  population 
somewhat  effectively,  which  perhaps  was  the  desired 
end,  but  the  military  results  were  niL 


BOMB-THROWING  1 25 

The  Zeppelin,  and  indeed  all  dirigibles  of  large 
size,  have  one  advantage  over  aeroplanes.  They 
are  able  to  throw  bombs  of  larger  size  and  charged 
with  greater  quantities  of  high  explosive  and  shrapnel 
than  those  which  can  be  hurled  from  heavier-than- 
air  machines.  Thus  it  has  been  stated  that  the 
largest  Zeppelins  can  drop  single  charges  exceeding 
one  ton  in  weight,  but  such  a  statement  is  not  to  be 
credited. 

The  shell  generally  used  by  the  Zeppelin  measures 
about  47  inches  in  length  by  8J  inches  in  diameter, 
and  varies  in  weight  from  200  to  242  pounds.  Where 
destruction  pure  and  simple  is  desired,  the  shell  is 
charged  with  a  high  explosive  such  as  picric  acid 
or  T.N.T.,  the  colloquial  abbreviation  for  the 
devastating  agent  scientifically  known  as  **  Trini- 
trotoluene," the  base  of  which,  in  common  with  all 
the  high  explosives  used  by  the  different  Powers 
and  variously  known  as  lyddite,  melinite,  cheddite, 
and  so  forth,  is  picric  acid.  Such  a  bomb,  if  it 
strikes  the  objective,  a  building,  for  instance,  fairly 
and  squarely,  may  inflict  widespread  material 
damage. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  it  is  desired  to  scatter 
death,  as  well  as  destruction,  far  and  wide,  an 
elaborate  form  of  shrapnel  shell  is  utilised.  The 
shell  in  addition  to  a  bursting  charge,  contains 
bullets,  pieces  of  iron,  and  other  metallic  fragments. 
When  the  shell  bursts,  their  contents,  together  with 
the  pieces  of  the  shell  which  is  likewise  broken  up 


126    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

by  the  explosion,  are  hurled  in  all  directions  over  a 
radius  of  some  50  yards  or  more,  according  to  the 
bursting  charge. 

These  shells  are  fired  upon  impact,  a  detonator 
exploding  the  main  charge.  The  detonator,  com- 
prising fulminate  of  merciury,  is  placed  in  the  head 
or  tail  of  the  missile.  To  secure  perfect  detonation 
and  to  distribute  the  death-dealing  contents  evenly 
in  all  directions,  it  is  essential  that  the  bomb  should 
strike  the  groimd  almost  at  right  angles  :  otherwise 
the  contents  are  hurled  irregularly  and  perhaps  in 
one  direction  only.  One  great  objection  to  the  per- 
cussion system,  as  the  method  of  impact  detonation 
is  called,  is  that  the  damage  may  be  localised.  A 
bomb  launched  from  a  height  of  say  1,000  feet  attains 
terrific  velocity,  due  to  the  force  of  gravity  in 
conjunction  with  its  own  weight,  in  consonance  with 
the  law  concerning  a  falling  body,  by  the  time  it 
reaches  the  ground.  It  buries  itself  to  a  certain 
depth  before  bursting  so  that  the  forces  of  the 
explosion  become  somewhat  muffled  as  it  were.  A 
huge  deep  hole — a  miniature  volcano  crater — is 
formed,  while  all  the  glass  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  explosion  may  be  shattered  by  the 
concussion,  and  the  walls  of  adjacent  buildings 
be  bespattered  with  shrapnel. 

Although  it  is  stated  that  an  airship  is  able  to 
drop  a  single  missile  weighing  one  ton  in  weight, 
there  has  been  no  attempt  to  prove  the  contention 
by  practice.     In  all  probability  the  heaviest  shell 


*'-'*  ^:t »», ' 


The  "Flechette"  or 
Steei.  Dart.     Actual  size. 


A  Zeppelin  Bomb. 


"^ ., 


BOMB-THROWING  127 

launched  from  a  Zeppelin  has  not  exceeded  300 
pounds.  There  is  one  cogent  reason  for  such  a 
belief.  A  bomb  weighing  one  ton  is  equivalent 
to  a  similar  weight  of  ballast.  If  this  were  dis- 
carded suddenly  the  equilibrium  of  the  dirigible 
would  be  seriously  disturbed — it  would  exert  a 
tendency  to  fly  upwards  at  a  rapid  speed.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  planes  controlling  movement 
in  the  vertical  plane  would  ever  be  able  to  counter- 
act this  enormous  vertical  thrust.  Something 
would  have  to  submit  to  the  strain.  Even  if  the 
dirigible  displaced  say  20  tons,  and  a  bomb  weighing 
one  ton  were  discharged,  the  weight  of  the  balloon 
would  be  decreased  suddenly  by  approximately  five 
per  cent.,  so  that  it  would  shoot  upwards  at  an 
alarming  speed,  and  some  seconds  would  elapse 
before  control  was  regained. 

The  method  of  launching  bombs  from  airships 
varies  considerably.  Some  are  released  from  a 
cradle,  being  tilted  into  position  ready  for  firing, 
while  others  are  discharged  from  a  tube  somewhat 
reminiscent  of  that  used  for  firing  torpedoes,  with 
the  exception  that  little  or  no  initial  impetus  is 
imparted  to  the  missile ;  the  velocity  it  attains 
is  essentially  gravitational. 

The  French  favour  the  tube-launching  method 
since  thereby  it  is  stated  to  be  possible  to  take  more 
accurate  aim.  The  objective  is  sighted  and  the 
bomb  launched  at  the  critical  moment.  In  some 
instances  the  French  employ  an  automatic  detonator 


128    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

which  corresponds  in  a  certain  measure  to  the 
time-fuse  of  a  shrapnel  shell  fired  from  a  gun. 

The  bomb-thrower  reads  the  altitude  of  his  airship 
as  indicated  by  his  barometer  or  other  recording 
instrument,  and  by  means  of  a  table  at  his  command 
ascertains  in  a  moment  the  time  which  will  elapse 
before  the  bomb  strikes  the  ground.  The  automatic 
detonator  is  set  in  motion  and  the  bomb  released 
to  explode  approximately  at  the  height  to  which 
it  is  set.  When  it  bursts  the  full  force  of  the 
explosion  is  distributed  downwards  and  laterally. 
Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  ensuring  the  explosion 
of  the  bomb  at  the  exact  height  desired,  it  is  also 
made  to  explode  upon  impact  so  as  to  make  doubly 
sure  of  its  efhcacy. 

Firing  timed  bombs  from  aloft,  however,  is  not 
free  from  excitement  and  danger,  as  the  experience 
of  a  French  airman  demonstrates.  His  dirigible 
had  been  commanded  to  make  a  night-raid  upon  a 
railway  station  which  was  a  strategical  junction 
for  the  movement  of  the  enemy's  troops.  Although 
the  hostile  searchlights  were  active,  the  airship 
contrived  to  slip  between  the  spokes  of  light  without 
being  observed.  By  descending  to  a  comparatively 
low  altitude  the  pilot  was  able  to  pick  up  the  ob- 
jective. 

Three  projectiles  were  discharged  in  rapid  succes- 
sion and  then  the  searchlights,  being  concentrated, 
struck  the  airship,  revealing  its  presence  to  the  troops 
below.     Instantly   a   spirited   fusillade   broke   out. 


PERILS  OF  BOMB-THROWER    129 

The  airmen,  by  throwing  ballast  and  other  portable 
articles  overboard  pell-mell,  rose  rapidly,  pursued 
by  the  hostile  shells. 

In  the  upward  travel  the  bomb-thrower  decided 
to  have  a  parting  shot.  The  airship  was  steadied 
momentarily  to  enable  the  range  to  be  taken,  the 
automatic  detonator  was  set  going  and  the  bomb 
slipped  into  the  launching  tube.  But  for  some 
reason  or  other  the  missile  jambed. 

The  situation  was  desperate.  In  a  few  seconds 
the  bomb  would  burst  and  shatter  the  airship. 
The  bomb-thrower  grabbed  a  tool  and  climbing 
into  the  rigging  below  hacked  away  at  the  bomb- 
throwing  tube  until  the  whole  equipment  was  cut 
adrift  and  fell  clear  of  the  vessel.  Almost  instantly 
there  was  a  terrific  explosion  in  mid-air.  The  blast 
of  air  caused  the  vessel  to  roll  and  pitch  in  a  dis- 
concerting manner,  but  as  the  airman  permitted 
the  craft  to  continue  its  upward  course  unchecked, 
she  soon  steadied  herself  and  was  brought  under 
control  once  more. 

The  bomb  carried  by  aeroplanes  differs  consider- 
ably from  that  used  by  dirigibles,  is  smaller  and 
more  convenient  to  handle,  though  considering  its 
weight  and  size  it  is  remarkably  destructive.  In 
this  instance  complete  reliance  is  placed  upon 
detonation  by  impact.  The  latest  types  of  British 
war-plane  bombs  have  been  made  particularly 
formidable,  those  employed  in  the  "  raids  in  force  " 
ranging  up  to  95  pounds  in  weight. 

K 


130    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

The  type  of  bomb  which  has  proved  to  be  the  most 
successful  is  pear-shaped.  The  tail  spindle  is  given 
an  arrow-head  shape,  the  vanes  being  utiHsed  to 
steady  the  downward  flight  of  the  missile.  In 
falling  the  bomb  spins  round,  the  rotating  speed 
increasing  as  the  projectile  gathers  velocity.  The 
vanes  act  as  a  guide,  keeping  the  projectile  in  as 
vertical  a  plane  as  possible,  and  ensuring  that  the 
rounded  head  shall  strike  the  ground.  The  earlier 
types  of  bombs  were  not  fitted  with  these  vanes, 
the  result  being  that  sometimes  they  turned  over 
and  over  as  they  fell  through-  the  air,  while  more 
often  than  not  they  failed  to  explode  upon  striking 
the  ground. 

The  method  of  launching  the  bomb  also  varies 
considerably,  experience  not  having  indicated  the 
most  efficient  method  of  consummating  this  end. 
In  some  cases  the  bombs  are  carried  in  a  cradle 
placed  beneath  the  aeroplane  and  launched  merely 
by  tilting  them  in  a  kind  of  shng,  one  by  one,  to 
enable  them  to  drop  to  the  ground,  this  action 
being  controlled  by  means  of  a  lever.  In  another 
instance  they  are  dropped  over  the  side  of  the  car 
by  the  pilot,  the  tail  of  the  bomb  being  fitted  with 
a  swivel  and  ring  to  facilitate  the  operation.  Some 
of  the  French  aviators  favour  a  still  simpler  method. 
The  bomb  is  attached  to  a  thread  and  lowered  over 
the  side.  At  the  critical  moment  it  is  released 
simply  by  severing  the  thread.  Such  aeroplane 
bombs,  however,  constitute  a  menace  to  the  machine 


THE  MARTEN-HALE  BOMB      131 

and  to  the  pilot.  Should  the  bomb  be  struck  by 
hostile  rifle  or  shell  fire  while  the  machine  is  aloft, 
an  explosion  is  probable  ;  while  should  the  aero- 
plane make  an  abrupt  descent  the  missiles  are  likely 
to  be  detonated. 

A  bomb  which  circumvents  this  menace  and  which 
in  fact  will  explode  only  when  it  strikes  the  ground 
is  that  devised  by  Mr.  Marten-Hale.  This  pro- 
jectile follows  the  usual  pear-shape,  and  has  a 
rotating  tail  to  preserve  direction  when  in  flight. 
The  detonator  is  held  away  from  the  main  charge 
by  a  collar  and  ball-bearing  which  are  held  in  place 
by  the  projecting  end  of  a  screw-releasing  spindle. 
When  the  bomb  is  dropped  the  rotating  tail 
causes  the  spindle  to  screw  upwards  until  the  pro- 
jection moves  away  from  the  steel  balls,  thereby 
allowing  them  to  fall  inward  when  the  collar  and  the 
detonator  are  released.  In  order  to  bring  about 
this  action  the  bomb  must  have  a  fall  of  at  least 
200  feet. 

When  the  bomb  strikes  the  ground  the  detonator 
falls  down  on  the  charge,  fires  the  latter,  and  thus 
brings  about  the  bursting  of  the  bomb.  The 
projectile  is  of  the  shrapnel  type.  It  weighs  20 
pounds  complete,  is  charged  with  some  four  pounds 
of  T.N.T.,  and  carries  340  steel  balls,  which  repre- 
sent a  weight  of  5f  pounds. 

The  firing  mechanism  is  extremely  sensitive  and 
the  bomb  will  burst  upon  impact  with  the  hull  of 
an    airship,    water,    or   soft    soil.     This    projectile, 

K  2 


132    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

when  discharged,  speedily  assumes  the  vertical 
position,  so  that  there  is  every  probability  that  it 
will  strike  the  ground  fairly  and  squarely,  although 
at  the  same  time  such  an  impact  is  not  imperative, 
because  it  will  explode  even  if  the  angle  of  incidence 
be  only  5  degrees.  It  is  remarkably  steady  in  its 
flight,  the  balancing  and  the  design  of  the  tail 
frustrating  completely  any  tendency  to  wobble  or 
to  turn  turtle  while  falling.  . 

Other  types  of  missile  may  be  used.  For  instance, 
incendiary  bombs  have  been  thrown  with  success 
in  certain  instances.  These  bombs  are  similar  in 
shape  to  the  shrapnel  projectile,  but  are  charged 
with  petrol  or  some  other  equally  highly  inflammable 
mixture,  and  fitted  with  a  detonator.  When  they 
strike  the  objective  the  bursting  charge  breaks  up 
the  shell,  releasing  the  contents,  and  simultaneously 
ignites  the  combustible. 

Another  shell  is  the  smoke-bomb,  which,  up  to 
the  present,  has  been  used  only  upon  a  restricted 
scale.  This  missile  is  charged  with  a  certain  quantity 
of  explosive  to  burst  the  shell,  and  a  substance 
which,  when  ignited,  emits  copious  clouds  of  dense 
smoke.  The  scope  of  such  a  shell  is  somewhat 
restricted,  it  is  used  only  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
structing hostile  artillery  fire.  The  shells  are 
dropped  in  front  of  the  artillery  position  and  the 
clouds  of  smoke  which  are  emitted  naturally  inter- 
fere with  the  operations  of  the  gunners.  These 
bombs  have  also  been  used  with  advantage  to  denote 


BOMB-DROPPING  133 

the  position  of  concealed  hostile  artillery,  although 
their  utility  in  this  connection  is  somewhat  un- 
certain, owing  to  the  difficulty  of  dropping  the  bomb 
so  accurately  as  to  enable  the  range-finders  to  pick 
up  the  range. 

Dropping  bombs  from  aloft  appears  to  be  a  very 
simple  operation,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  an 
extremely  difficult  matter  to  strike  the  target, 
especially  from  a  high  altitude.  So  far  as  the 
aeroplane  is  concerned  it  is  somewhat  at  a  dis- 
advantage as  compared  with  the  airship,  as  the  latter 
is  able  to  hover  over  a  position,  and,  if  a  spring-gun 
is  employed  to  impart  an  initial  velocity  to  the 
missile,  there  is  a  greater  probability  of  the  projectile 
striking  the  target  provided  it  has  been  well-aimed. 
But  even  then  other  conditions  are  likely  to  arise, 
such  as  air-currents,  which  may  swing  the  missile 
to  one  side  of  the  objective.  Consequently  adequate 
allowance  has  to  be  made  for  windage,  which  is  a 
very  difficult  factor  to  calculate  from  aloft. 

Bomb-dropping  from  an  aeroplane  is  even  more 
difficult.  If  for  instance  the  aeroplane  is  speeding 
along  at  60  miles  an  hour,  the  bomb  when  released 
will  have  a  speed  in  the  horizontal  plane  of  60  miles 
an  hour,  because  momentarily  it  is  travelling  at  the 
speed  of  the  aeroplane.  Consequently  the  shell  will 
describe  a  curved  trajectory,  somewhat  similar  to 
that  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  aeroplane  is  travelling 
slowly,  say  at  20  miles  an  hour,  the  curve  of  the 


134    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

trajectory  will  be  flatter,  and  if  a  head  wind  be 
prevailing  it  may  even  be  swept  backwards  somewhat 


V 

\ 

\ 

\ 


■\ 


\^ 


\ 

^  \ 

N 

\ 

\ 
\ 

I 
L 


Fig.  7.— Bomb-dropping  from  a  Rapidly-moving 
Aeroplane. 

In  order  to  strike  the  point  D  the  bomb  is  released  from  the 

aeroplane  A  at  B.     Its  curved  trajectory  is  indicated  by  the 

dotted  line  C. 

after  it  has  lost  its  initial  forward  momentum,  and 
describe  a  trajectory  similar  to  that  in  Fig.  8. 


TRAJECTORY  OF  BOMBS        135 

A  bomb  released  from  an  altitude  of  1,000  feet 
seldom,  if  ever,  makes  a  bee-line  for  the  earth,  even 
if  dropped  from  a  stationary  airship.    Accordingly, 


/ 


F  G.   8. — The  Influence  of  an  Adverse  Wind  upon 
THE  Trajectory  of  the  Bomb. 

D  is  the  objective,  but  the  bomb  B,  released  from  A,  is  deflected 

by  the  wind  F,  which  produces  the  trajectory  C,  with  the 

result  that  the  bomb  strikes  the  ground  at  E. 


136    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

the  airman  has  to  release  the  bomb  before  he  reaches 
the  target  below.  The  determination  of  the  critical 
moment  for  the  release  is  not  easy,  inasmuch  as 
the  airman  has  to  take  into  his  calculations  the 
speed  of  his  machine,  his  altitude,  and  the  direction 
and  velocity  of  the  air-currents. 

The  difficulty  of  aiming  has  been  demonstrated 
upon  several  occasions  at  aviation  meetings  and 
other  similar  gatherings.  Monsieur  Michelin,  who 
has  done  so  much  for  aviation  in  France,  offered  a 
prize  of  £1,000 — $5,000 — in  1912  for  bomb-dropping 
from  an  aeroplane.  The  target  was  a  rectangular 
space  marked  out  upon  the  ground,  measuring 
170  feet  long  by  40  feet  broad,  and  the  missiles  had 
to  be  dropped  from  a  height  of  2,400  feet.  The 
prize  was  won  by  the  well-known  American  airman, 
Lieutenant  Riley  E.  Scott,  formerly  of  the  United 
States  Army.  He  dropped  his  bombs  in  groups  of 
three.  The  first  round  fell  clear  of  the  target, 
but  eight  of  the  remaining  missiles  fell  within  the 
area. 

In  the  German  competition  which  was  held  at 
Gotha  in  September  of  the  same  year  the  results 
were  somewhat  disappointing.  Two  targets  were 
provided.  The  one  represented  a  military  bivouac 
occupying  a  superficies  of  330  square  feet,  and  the 
other  a  captive  balloon  resembling  a  Zeppelin. 
The  prizes  offered  were  £500,  £200,  and  £80 — $2,500, 
$1,000  and  $400 — respectively,  and  were  awarded 
to  those  who  made  the  greatest  number  of  hits. 


BOMB-DROPPING  137 

The  conditions  were  by  no  means  so  onerous  as  those 
imposed  in  the  MicheUn  contest,  inasmuch  as  the 
altitude  Umit  was  set  at  660  feet,  while  no  machine 
was  to  descend  within  165  feet.  The  first  competitor 
completely  failed  to  hit  the  balloon.  The  second 
competitor  flying  at  800  feet  landed  seven  bombs 
within  the  square,  but  only  one  other  competitor 
succeeded  in  placing  one  bomb  within  the  space. 

Bomb-dropping  under  the  above  conditions, 
however,  is  vastly  dissimilar  from  such  work  under 
the  grim  realities  of  war.  The  airman  has  to  act 
quickly,  take  his  enemy  by  surprise,  avail  himself 
of  any  protective  covering  which  may  exist,  and 
incur  great  risks.  The  opposing  forces  are  over- 
whelmingly against  him.  The  modern  rifle,  if 
fired  vertically  into  the  air,  will  hurl  the  bullet  to 
a  height  of  about  5,000  feet,  while  the  weapons  which 
have  been  designed  to  combat  aircraft  have  a  range 
of  10,000  feet  or  more. 

At  the  latter  altitude  aggressive  tactics  are 
useless.  The  airman  is  unable  to  obtain  a  clear 
sharp  view  of  the  country  beneath  owing  to  the 
interference  offered  to  vision  by  atmospheric  haze, 
even  in  the  clearest  of  weather.  In  order  to  obtain 
reasonable  accuracy  of  aim  the  corsair  of  the  sky 
must  fly  at  about  400  feet.  In  this  respect,  however, 
the  aeroplane  is  at  a  decided  advantage,  as  compared 
with  the  dirigible.  The  machine  offers  a  considerably 
smaller  target  and  moves  with  much  greater  speed. 
Experience  of  the  war  has  shown  that  to  attempt 


138    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

to  hurl  bombs  from  an  extreme  height  is  merely 
a  waste  of  ammunition.  True,  they  do  a  certain 
amount  of  damage,  but  this  is  due  to  luck,  not 
judgment. 

For  success  in  aSrial  bomb  operations  the  human 
element  is  mainly  responsible.  The  daring  airman 
is  likely  to  achieve  the  greatest  results,  as  events 
have  proved,  especially  when  his  raid  is  sudden  and 
takes  the  enemy  by  surprise.  The  raids  carried 
out  by  Marix,  Collet,  Briggs,  Babington,  Sippe  and 
many  others  have  estabHshed  this  fact  incontro- 
vertibly.  In  all  these  operations  the  airmen  suc- 
ceeded because  of  their  intrepidity  and  their  decision 
to  take  advantage  of  cover,  otherwise  a  prevailing 
mist  or  low-lying  clouds.  FUght-Lieutenant  Collet 
approached  the  Zeppelin  shed  at  Diisseldorf  at  an 
altitude  of  6,000  feet.  There  was  a  bank  of  mist 
below,  which  he  encountered  at  1,500  feet.  He 
traversed  the  depth  of  this  layer  and  emerged 
therefrom  at  a  height  of  only  400  feet  above  the 
ground.  His  objective  was  barely  a  qiiarter  of 
a  mile  ahead.  TraveUing  at  high  speed  he  launched 
his  bombs  with  what  proved  to  be  deadly  precision, 
and  disappeared  into  cover  almost  before  the  enemy 
had  grasped  his  intentions.  Lieutenant-Commander, 
now  Flight-Commander,  Marix  was  even  more  daring. 
Apparently  he  had  no  mist  in  which  to  conceal 
himself  but  trusted  almost  entirely  to  the  speed 
of  his  machine,  which  probably  at  times  notched 
90    miles    per    hour.     Although    his    advent    was 


RAID  ON  FRIEDRICHSHAFEN    139 

detected  and  he  was  greeted  with  a  spirited  fusillade 
he  clung  to  his  determined  idea.  He  headed 
straight  for  the  Zeppelin  shed,  launched  two  bombs 
and  swung  into  the  higher  reaches  of  the  air  without 
a  moment's  hesitation.  His  aim  was  deadly, 
since  both  bombs  found  their  mark,  and  the  ZeppeUn 
docked  within  was  blown  up.  The  intrepid  airman 
experienced  several  narrow  escapes,  for  his  aSroplane 
was  struck  twenty  times,  and  one  or  two  of  the 
control  wires  were  cut  by  passing  bullets. 

The  raid  carried  out  by  Commanders  Briggs  and 
Babington  in  company  with  Lieutenant  Sippe  upon 
the  Zeppelin  workshops  at  Friedrichshafen  was  even 
more  daring.  Leaving  the  Allies'  lines  they  ascended 
to  an  altitude  of  4,500  feet,  and  at  this  height  held 
to  the  pre-arranged  course  until  they  encountered  a 
mist,  which  while  protecting  them  from  the  alert 
eyes  of  the  enemy  below,  was  responsible  for  the 
separation  of  the  raiders,  so  that  each  was  forced  to 
act  independently  and  ^to  trust  to  the  compass 
to  bring  him  out  of  the  ordeal  successfully.  Lieu- 
tenant Sippe  sighted  Lake  Constance,  and  taking 
advantage  of  the  mist  lying  low  upon  the  water, 
descended  to  such  an  extent  that  he  found  himself 
only  a  few  feet  above  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  Swing- 
ing round  to  the  Lake  he  descended  still  lower  until 
at  last  he  was  practically  skimming  the  surface  of 
the  Lake,  since  he  flew  at  the  amazingly  low  height 
of  barely  seven  feet  off  the  water.  There  is  no 
doubt   that   the   noise   of    his  motor   was   heard 


I40    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

plainly  by  the  enemy,  but  the  mist  completely 
enveloped  him,  and  owing  to  the  strange  pranks  that 
fog  plays  with  sound  deceived  his  antagonists. 

At  last,  climbing  above  the  bank  of  vapour,  he 
found  that  he  had  overshot  the  mark,  so  he  turned 
quickly  and  sped  backwards.  At  the  same  time 
he  discovered  that  he  had  been  preceded  by  Com- 
mander Briggs,  who  was  bombarding  the  shed 
furiously,  and  who  himself  was  the  object  of  a 
concentrated  fire.  Swooping  down  once  more, 
Lieutenant  Sippe  turned,  rained  his  bombs  upon  the 
objective  beneath,  drawing  fire  upon  himself,  but 
co-operating  with  Commander  Babington,  who  had 
now  reached  the  scene,  he  manoeuvred  above  the 
works  and  continued  the  bombardment  until  their 
ammunition  was  expended,  when  they  sped  home- 
wards under  the  cover  of  the  mist.  Considering 
the  intensity  of  the  hostile  fire,  it  is  surprising  that 
the  aeroplanes  were  not  smashed  to  fragments. 
Undoubtedly  the  high  speed  of  the  machines  and 
the  zig-zagging  courses  which  were  followed  non- 
plussed the  enemy.  Commander  Briggs  was  not 
so  fortunate  as  his  colleagues;  a  bullet  pierced 
his  petrol  tank,  compeUing  a  hurried  descent. 

The  most  amazing  feature  of  these  aerial  raids 
has  been  the  remarkably  low  height  at  which  the 
airmen  have  ventured  to  fly.  While  such  a  pro- 
cedure facilitates  marksmanship  it  increases  the 
hazards.  The  airmen  have  to  trust  implicitly  to 
the  fleetness  of  their  craft  and  to  their  own  nerve. 


THE  FLECHETTE 


141 


Bearing  in  mind  the  vulnerability  of  the  average 
aeroplane,  and  the  general  absence  of  protective 
armouring  against  rifle  fire  at  almost  point-blank 
range,  it  shows  the  important  part  which  the  human 
element  is  compelled  to  play  in  bomb-dropping 
operations. 

Another  missile  which  has  been  introduced  by  the 
French   airmen,    and   which   is   extremely   deadly 


Fig.  9.— Section  of  Uppkr  End  or  Tail  of  Flechette. 

when  hurled  against  dense  masses  of  men,  is  the  steel 
arrow,  or  "  flechette "  as  it  is  called.  It  is  a 
fiendish  projectile  consisting  in  reality  of  a  pencil  of 
sohd  pohshed  steel,  4f  inches  in  length.  The  lower 
end  has  a  sharp  tapering  point,  fths  of  an  inch  in 
length.  For  a  distance  of  ijth  of  an  inch  above 
this  point  the  cylindrical  form  of  the  pencil  is  pre- 
served, but  for  the  succeeding  three  inches  to  the 
upper  end,  the  pencil  is  provided  with  four  equally 


142    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

spaced  angle  flanges  or  vanes  (Fig.  9).  This  flanging 
of  the  upper  end  or  tail  ensures  the  arrow  spinning 
rapidly  as  it  falls  through  the  air,  and  at  the  same 
times  preserves  its  vertical  position  during  its 
descent.  The  weight  of  the  arrow  is  two-thirds  of 
an  ounce. 

The  method  of  launching  this  fearsome  projectile 
is  ingenious.  A  hundred  or  even  more  are  packed  in 
a  vertical  position  in  a  special  receptacle,  placed 
upon  the  floor  of  the  aeroplane,  preferably  near  the 
foot  of  the  pilot  or  observer.  This  receptacle  is 
fitted  with  a  bottom  moving  in  the  manner  of  a 
trap-door,  and  is  opened  by  pressing  a  lever.  The 
aviator  has  merely  to  depress  this  pedal  with  his 
foot,  when  the  box  is  opened  and  the  whole  of  the 
contents  are  released.  The  fall  at  first  is  somewhat 
erratic,  but  this  is  an  advantage,  as  it  enables  the 
darts  to  scatter  and  to  cover  a  wide  area  As  the 
rotary  motion  of  the  arrows  increases  during  the 
fall,  the  direct  line  of  flight  becomes  more  pro- 
nounced until  at  last  they  assume  a  vertical  direction 
free  from  all  wobbling,  so  that  when  they  alight  upon 
the  target  they  are  quite  plumb. 

When  launched  from  a  height  they  strike  the 
objective  with  terrific  force,  and  will  readily  pene- 
trate a  soldier's  helmet  and  skull.  Indeed,  when 
released  at  a  height  of  4,000  feet  they  have  been 
known  to  pierce  a  mounted  soldier's  head,  and  pass 
vertically  through  his  body  and  that  of  his  horse 
also.     Time  after  time  German  soldiers  have  found 


OFFENSIVE  POWER  143 

themselves  pinned  to  the  ground  through  the  arrow 
striking  and  penetrating  their  feet.  Owing  to  the 
extremely  light  weight  of  the  darts  they  can  be 
launched  in  batches  of  hundreds  at  a  time,  and  in  a 
promiscuous  manner  when  the  objective  is  a  massed 
body  of  infantry  or  cavalry,  or  a  transport  convoy. 
They  are  extremely  effective  when  thrown  among 
horses  even  from  a  comparatively  low  altitude,  not 
so  much  from  the  fatalities  they  produce,  as  from 
the  fact  that  they  precipitate  a  stampede  among  the 
animals,  which  is  generally  sufficiently  serious  and 
frantic  to  throw  cavalry  or  a  transport-train  into 
wild  confusion. 

Although  aerial  craft,  when  skilfully  handled, 
have  proved  highly  successful  as  weapons  of  offence, 
the  possibilities  of  such  aggression  as  yet  are  scarcely 
realised ;  aerial  tactics  are  in  their  infancy.  Develop- 
ments are  moving  rapidly.  Great  efforts  are  being 
centred  upon  the  evolution  of  more  formidable 
missiles  to  be  launched  from  the  clouds.  The  airman 
is  destined  to  inspire  far  greater  awe  than  at  present, 
to  exercise  a  still  more  demoralising  influence,  and 
to  work  infinitely  more  destruction. 


CHAPTER  XI 

ARMOURED  AEROPLANES 

The  stern  test  of  war  has  served  to  reveal  con- 
clusively the  fact  that  aerial  craft  can  be  put  out  of 
action  readily  and  effectively,  when  once  the 
marksman  has  picked  up  the  range,  whether  the 
gunner  be  conducting  his  operations  with  an  anti- 
aircraft gun  stationed  upon  the  ground,  or  from  a 
hostile  machine.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
Flight-Commander  Briggs,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
daring  British  raid  upon  the  Zeppelin  sheds  at 
Friedrichshafen,  was  brought  to  the  ground  by  a 
bullet  which  penetrated  his  fuel  tank.  Several 
other  vessels,  British,  German,  French,  and  Russian 
alike,  have  been  thrown  out  of  action  in  a  similar 
manner,  and  invariably  the  craft  which  has  been 
disabled  suddenly  in  this  way  has  fallen  precipi- 
tately to  earth  in  the  fatal  headlong  dive. 

Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  there  was 
considerable  divergence  of  opinion  upon  this  subject. 
The  general  opinion  was  that  the  outspread  wings 
and  the  stays  which  constituted  the  weakest  parts 
of  the  structure  were  most  susceptible  to  gun-fire,  and 


ANTI-AIRCRAFT   GUN   TRIALS    145 

thus  were  likely  to  fail.  But  practice  has  proved 
that  it  is  the  driving  mechanism  which  is  the  most 
vulnerable  part  of  the  aeroplane. 

This  vulnerability  of  the  essential  feature  of  the 
flying  machine  is  a  decisive  weakness,  and  exposes 
the  aviator  to  a  constant  menace.  It  may  be  quite 
true  that  less  than  one  bullet  in  a  thousand  may  hit 
the  machine,  but  when  the  lucky  missile  does  find 
its  billet  its  effect  is  complete.  The  fact  must  not 
be  overlooked  that  the  gunners  who  work  the 
batteries  of  anti-aircraft  guns  are  becoming  more 
and  more  expert  as  a  result  of  practice,  so  that  as 
time  progresses  and  improved  guns  for  such  duty 
are  rendered  available,  the  work  of  the  aviator  is 
likely  to  become  more  dangerous  and  difficult. 
Experience  has  proved  that  the  high  velocity  gun 
of  to-day  is  able  to  hurl  its  projectile  or  shell  to  an 
extreme  height — far  greater  than  was  previously 
considered  possible — so  that  considerable  discretion 
has  to  be  exercised  by  the  airman,  who  literally 
bears  his  life  in  his  hands. 

Although  elaborate  trials  were  carried  out  upon 
the  testing  ranges  with  the  weapons  devised  es- 
pecially for  firing  upon  flying  machines,  captive 
balloons  being  employed  as  targets,  the  data  thus 
obtained  were  neither  conclusive  nor  illuminating. 
The  actual  experiences  of  airmen  have  given  us  some 
very  instructive  facts  upon  this  point  for  the  first 
time. 

It  was  formerly  held  that  the  zone  of  fire  that  is 

L 


146    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

to  be  considered  as  a  serious  danger  was  within  a 
height  of  about  4,500  feet.  But  this  estimate  was 
well  within  the  mark.  Airmen  have  foimd  that  the 
modern  projectiles  devised  for  this  phase  of  opera- 
tions are  able  to  inflict  distinctly  serious  damage  at 
an  altitude  of  9,000  feet.  The  shell  itself  may  have 
but  little  of  its  imparted  velocity  remaining  at  this 
altitude,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  when  the 
missile  bursts,  the  contents  thereof  are  given  an 
independent  velocity,  and  a  wide  cone  of  dispersion, 
which  is  quite  sufficient  to  achieve  the  desired  end, 
inasmuch  as  the  mechanism  of  the  modern  aeroplane 
and  dirigible  is  somewhat  delicate. 

It  was  for  this  reason  that  the  possibility  of 
armouring  the  airship  was  discussed  seriously,  and 
many  interesting  experiments  in  this  field  were 
carried  out.  At  the  same  time  it  was  decided  that 
the  armouring  should  be  effected  upon  lines  analogous 
to  that  prevailing  in  warship  engineering.  The 
craft  should  not  only  be  provided  with  defensive 
but  also  with  aggressive  armament.  This  decision 
was  not  viewed  with  general  approbation.  It  was 
pointed  out  that  questions  of  weight  would  arise, 
especially  in  relation  to  the  speed  of  the  machine. 
Increased  weight,  unless  it  were  accompanied  by 
a  proportionate  augmentation  of  power  in  the  motor, 
would  react  against  the  efficiency  and  utility  of 
the  machine,  woiild  appreciably  reduce  its  speed, 
and  would  affect  its  climbing  powers  very  adversely. 
In  some  quarters  it  was  maintained  that  as  a  result 


ARMOURED   AIR-SHIPS  147 

the  machine  would  even  prove  unsuited  to  military 
operations,  inasmuch  as  high  speed  is  the  primary 
factor  in  these. 

Consequently  it  was  decided  by  the  foremost 
aviating  experts  that  machines  would  have  to  be 
classified  and  allotted  to  particular  spheres  of  work, 
just  as  warships  are  built  in  accordance  with  the 
special  duty  which  they  are  expected  to  perform. 
In  reconnaissance,  speed  is  imperative,  because 
such  work  in  the  air  coincides  with  that  of  the  tor- 
pedo-boat or  scout  upon  the  seas.  It  is  designed 
to  acquire  information  respecting  the  movements 
of  the  enemy,  so  as  to  assist  the  heavier  arms  in 
the  plan  of  campaign. ^  On  the  other  hand,  the 
fighting  corsair  of  the  skies  might  be  likened  to 
the  cruiser  or  battleship.  It  need  not  possess  such 
a  high  turn  of  speed,  but  must  be  equipped  with 
hard-hitting  powers  and  be  protected  against 
attacking  fire. 

One  attempt  to  secure  the  adequate  protection 
against  gun-fire  from  the  ground  assumed  the 
installation  of  bullet-proof  steel  plating,  about  one- 
fifth  of  an  inch  thick,  below  the  tank  and  the  motor 
respectively.  The  disposition  of  the  plating  was 
such  as  to  offer  the  minimum  of  resistance  to  the 
air  and  yet  to  present  a  plane  surface  to  the  ground 
below.  So  far  as  it  went  this  protection  was 
completely  effective,  but  it  failed  to  armour  the 
vital  parts  against  lateral,  cross  and  downward 
fire  while  aloft.    As  the  latter  is  more  to  be  feared 

L  2 


148    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

than  the  fire  from  the  ground,  seeing  that  it  may 
be  directed  at  point  blank  range,  this  was  a  decided 
defect  and  the  armour  was  subsequently  abandoned 
as  useless. 

The  only  effective  method  of  achieving  the  desired 
end  is  to  armour  the  whole  of  the  carriage  or  fuselage 
of  the  aeroplane,  and  this  was  the  principle  adopted 
by  the  Vickers  Company.  The  Vickers  military 
aeroplane  is  essentially  a  military  machine.  It 
is  built  of  steel  throughout.  The  skeleton  of  the 
machine  is  formed  of  an  alloy  which  combines 
the  qualities  of  aluminium  and  steel  to  ensure 
toughness,  strength,  and  lightness.  In  fact,  metal 
is  employed  liberally  throughout,  except  in  connec- 
tion with  the  wings,  which  follow  the  usual  lines 
of  construction.  The  body  of  the  car  is  sheathed 
with  steel  plating  which  is  bullet  proof  against 
rifle  or  even  shrapnel  fire.  The  car  is  designed 
to  carry  two  persons ;  the  seats  are  therefore 
disposed  tandemwise,  with  the  observer  or  gunner 
occupying  the  front  seat. 

The  defensive  armament  is  adequate  for  ordinary 
purposes.  Being  fitted  with  a  100  horse-power 
motor,  fairly  high,  speeds  are  attainable,  although 
the  velocity  is  not  equal  to  that  of  machines  con- 
structed upon  conventional  lines,  inasmuch  as  there 
is  an  appreciable  increase  in  weight. 

The  car  is  short  and  designed  upon  excellent 
stream  lines,  so  that  the  minimum  of  resistance  to 
the  air  is  offered,  while  at  the  same  time  the  balancing 


AERIAL   SCOUTS  149 

is  perfect.  The  sides  of  the  car  are  brought  up 
high  enough  to  protect  the  aviators,  only  their 
heads  being  visible  when  they  are  seated.  The 
prow  of  the  car  follows  the  lines  generally  adopted 
in  high  speed  torpedo  boat  design  ;  there  is  a  sharp 
knife  edge  stem  with  an  enclosed  fo'c's'le,  the 
latter  housing  the  gun. 

Another  craft,  designed  for  scouting  operations, 
may  be  likened  to  the  mosquito  craft  of  the  seas. 
This  machine,  while  a  biplane  like  the  military 
aeroplane,  is  of  lighter  construction,  everything 
being  sacrificed  to  speed  in  this  instance.  It  is 
htted  with  a  100  horse-power  motor  and  is  designed 
to  carry  an  observer  if  required.  There  is  no 
offensive  armament,  however.  The  fuel  tank 
capacity,  moreover,  is  limited,  being  only  sufficient 
for  a  two  or  three  hours'  flight.  While  this  is  ade- 
quate for  general  reconnoitring,  which  for  the  most 
part  entails  short  high  speed  flights,  there  are 
occasions  when  the  Staff  demands  more  prolonged 
observations  conducted  over  a  greater  radius. 
This  requisition  can  be  met  by  eliminating  the 
observer,  whose  duties  in  this  instance  must  be 
assumed  by  the  pilot,  and  substituting  in  place 
of  the  former,  a  second  fuel  tank  of  sufficient  capacity 
for  a  flight  of  four  or  five  hours,  thereby  bringing 
the  term  of  action  in  the  air  to  about  6J  hours. 
This  machine  travels  at  a  very  high  speed  and  is 
eminently  adapted  to  its  specific  duty,  but  it  is  of 
limited  service  for  general  purposes. 


ISO    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

The  arming  of  an  aeroplane,  to  enable  it  to  defend 
itself  against  hostile  attack  or  to  participate  in 
raiding  operations  upon  the  aerial  fleet  of  the 
enemy,  appears  to  be  a  simple  task,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  it  is  an  undertaking  beset  with  difficulties 
innumerable.  This  is  especially  the  case  where  the 
aeroplane  is  of  the  tractive  type,  that  is  to  say  where 
the  propellers  are  placed  in  the  forefront  of  the 
machine  and  in  their  revolution  serve  to  draw  the 
machine  forward.  All  other  considerations  must 
necessarily  be  sacrificed  to  the  mounting  of  the 
propeller.  Consequently  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to 
allot  a  position  for  the  installation  of  a  gun,  or  if 
such  should  be  found  there  is  grave  risk  of  the  angle 
of  fire  being  severely  restricted.  In  fact,  in  many 
instances  the  mounting  of  a  gun  is  out  of  the 
question :  it  becomes  a  greater  menace  to  the 
machine  than  to  the  enemy. 

The  French  aeronautical  section  of  the  military 
department  devoted  considerable  study  to  this 
subject,  but  found  the  problem  almost  insurmount- 
able. Monsieur  Loiseau  met  with  the  greatest 
measure  of  success,  and  his  system  is  being  practised 
in  the  present  campaign.  This  principle  is  essentially 
adapted  to  tractor  aeroplanes.  Forward  of  the 
pilot  a  special  position  is  reserved  for  the  gunner. 
A  special  mounting  is  provided  towards  the  prow, 
and  upon  the  upper  face  of  the  body  of  the  machine. 
The  gim  mounting  is  disposed  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  is  able  to  command  a  wide  arc  of  fire  in  the  vertical 


iAlJieri 


Unloading  Bombs  and  Gasoline  or  Petrol  from  an 
Aeroplane  Supply  Train. 


ARMING   AIR-CRAFT  151 

plane  over  the  nose  of  the  machine  and  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  downward  direction. 

The  marksman  is  provided  with  a  special  seat, 
but  when  he  comes  into  action  he  has  to  stand  to 
manipulate  his  weapon.  The  lower  part  of  his  body 
is  protected  by  a  front  shield  of  steel  plate,  a  fifth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness,  while  a  light  railing  ex- 
tending upon  either  side  and  behind  enables  the 
gunner  to  maintain  his  position  when  the  aeroplane 
is  banking  and  climbing.  The  machine  gun,  of  the 
Hotchkiss  type,  is  mounted  upon  a  swivel  attached 
to  a  tripod,  while  the  latter  is  built  into  the 
bracing  of  the  car,  so  as  to  ensure  a  fairly  steady 
gun  platform. 

While  the  gun  in  the  hands  of  a  trained  marksman 
may  be  manipulated  with  destructive  effect,  the 
drawbacks  to  the  arrangement  are  obvious.  The 
gunner  occupies  a  very  exposed  position,  and, 
although  the  bullet-proof  shield  serves  to  break  the 
effects  of  wind  when  travelHng  at  high  speed  which 
renders  the  sighting  and  training  of  the  weapon 
extremely  difficult,  yet  he  offers  a  conspicuous 
target,  more  particularly  when  the  enemy  is  able 
to  assume  the  upper  position  in  the  air  as  a  result 
of  superior  speed  in  traveUing.  The  gun,  however, 
may  be  elevated  to  about  60  degrees,  which  elevation 
may  be  accentuated  by  the  inchnation  of  the 
aeroplane  when  climbing,  while  the  faciUty  with 
which  the  weapon  may  be  moved  through  the 
horizontal  plane  is  distinctly  favourable. 


152    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

But  the  aerial  marksman  suffers  from  one  very 
pronounced  defect :  he  has  a  severely  restricted 
survey  of  everything  below,  since  his  vision  is  inter- 
rupted by  the  planes.  The  result  is  that  an  enemy 
who  has  lost  ascendancy  of  position  is  comparatively 
safe  if  he  is  able  to  fly  immediately  below  his 
adversary  :  the  mitrailleuse  of  the  latter  cannot  be 
trained  upon  him.  On  the  other  hand  the  enemy, 
if  equipped  with  repeating  rifles  or  automatic  pistols, 
is  able  to  inflict  appreciable  damage  upon  the  craft 
overhead,  the  difficulties  of  firing  vertically  into  the 
air  notwithstanding. 

In  the  Vickers  system,  where  the  propeller  is 
mounted  behind  the  car,  the  aeroplane  thus  operating 
upon  the  pusher  principle,  the  nose  of  the  car  is 
occupied  by  the  arm,  which  is  a  rifle  calibre  machine 
gun  fitted  upon  a  special  mounting.  The  prow  is 
provided  with  an  embrasure  for  the  weapon  and 
the  latter  is  so  installed  as  to  command  an  angle 
of  30  degrees  on  all  sides  of  the  longitudinal  axis 
of  the  machine  when  in  flight.  In  this  instance  the 
marksman  is  provided  with  complete  protection 
on  all  sides,  inasmuch  as  his  position  is  in  the  prow, 
where  the  hood  of  the  fo'c's'le  shields  him  from 
overhead  attack.  The  gun  is  protected  by  a  special 
shield  which  moves  with  the  gun  barrel.  This 
shield  is  provided  with  mica  windows,  through  which 
the  gunner  is  able  to  sight  his  arm,  so  that  he  is 
not  inconvenienced  in  any  way  by  the  wind  draught. 

One  shortcoming  of  such  methods  of  arming  an 


ADVANTAGES   OF   RIFLE-FIRE    153 

aeroplane  will  be  observed.  Ahead  firing  only  is 
possible ;  the  weapon  cannot  be  trained  astern, 
while  similarly  the  line  of  fire  on  either  broadside 
is  severely  limited.  This  is  one  reason  why  the 
machine-gun  armament  of  aerial  craft  of  the  heavier- 
than-air  type  has  not  undergone  extensive  develop- 
ment. In  many  instances  the  pilot  and  observer 
have  expressed  their  preference  for  repeating  high- 
velocity  rifles  over  any  form  of  fixed  gun  mounting, 
and  have  recourse  to  the  latter  only  when  the  con- 


FlG.     10. — How   B,    BEING    ABLE    TO    FiRE    AHEAD,    LOSES 

Advantage  by  Overhauling  A,  because  in  Position  2 

B   COMES  WITHIN   RANGE  OF   GUN   OF  A. 

ditions   are   extremely   favourable   to   its   effective 
employment. 

Efforts  are  now  being  made  to  equip  the  military 
type  of  aeroplane  with  both  forward  and  astern 
firing  guns.  The  urgency  of  astern  fire  has  been 
brought  home  very  vividly.  Suppose,  for  instance, 
two  hostile  aeroplanes,  A  and  B,  are  in  the  air. 
(Fig.  10.)  A  has  the  advantage  at  first,  but  B  is 
speedier  and  rapidly  overhauls  A.  During  the 
whole  period  of  the  overhauling  movement  the 
gun  of  B  can  be  directed  upon  A,  while  the  latter, 


154    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

owing  to  the  arc  of  training  being  limited  to  c  d, 
cannot  reply.  Obviously  in  the  running  fight  it 
would  be  to  the  advantage  of  B,  although  the  fleeter 
machine,  to  keep  behind  A  (position  i),  but  the 
latter  is  making  towards  its  own  lines. 

Under  these  circumstances  A  must  be  headed  off, 
so  B  crowds  on  speed  to  consummate  this  end. 
But  in  the  overtaking  process  B  renders  his  gun-fire 
ineffective,  inasmuch  as  B  passes  beyond  the  arc 
of  his  gun  which  is  represented  by  e  f.    But  in  so 


Fig.  II. — The  Advantage  of  both  Ahead  and  Astern 
Gun-fire.     (For  explanation  see  text.) 

doing  B  comes  within  the  firing  arc  of  A  (position  2). 
To  minimise  this  danger  B  ascends  to  a  higher  level 
to  obtain  the  paramount  position. 

If,  however,  B  were  equipped  with  an  astern  gun 
the  aeroplane  A  would  be  within  the  fire  of  B  when 
the  forward  gun  of  the  latter  could  not  be  used. 
Similarly  if  A  were  also  fitted  with  an  astern  gun 
it  would  be  able  to  attack  its  pursuer  the  whole 
time  B  was  to  its  rear  (Fig.  11)  and  in  this  event, 
if  its  gun-fire  were  superior,  it  would  be  able  to 
keep  the  latter  to  a  safe  distance,  or  compel  B  to 


AHEAD   AND   ASTERN   FIRING     155 

manoeuvre  into  a  superior  position,  which  would 
entail  a  certain  loss  of  time. 

An  astern  firing  gun  would  be  valuable  to  B  in 
another  sense.  Directly  it  had  passed  A  or  brought 
the  latter  within  the  zone  of  its  astern  gun  it  could 
maintain  its  fire  at  the  most  advantageous  range, 
because  owing  to  its  speed  it  would  be  able  to  dictate 
the  distance  over  which  shots  should  be  exchanged 
and  if  mounted  with  a  superior  weapon  would  be 
able  to  keep  beyond  the  range  of  ^'s  guns  while 
at  the  same  time  it  would  keep  A  within  range  of 
its  own  gun  and  consequently  rake  the  latter.  In 
the  interests  of  self-preservation  A  would  be  com- 
pelled to  change  its  course ;  in  fact,  B  would  be 
able  to  drive  it  in  any  direction  he  desired,  as  he 
would  command  ^'s  movements  by  gun-fire. 

The  value  of  combined  ahead  and  astern  firing 
has  been  appreciated,  but  there  is  one  difiiculty 
which  at  the  moment  appears  to  be  insuperable — 
the  clearance  of  the  propeller.  At  the  moment 
astern-firing,  if  such  it  may  be  called,  is  main- 
tained by  repeating  rifles,  but  this  armament  is 
not  to  be  compared  with  machine-gun  firing,  as 
the  latter  with  its  capacity  to  pour  400  to  600 
shots  a  minute,  is  far  more  deadly,  particularly  when 
the  weapon  is  manipulated  by  a  crack  gunner. 

Up  to  the  present  the  offensive  armament  of 
aeroplanes  has  been  confined  to  light  machine 
guns  such  as  the  Hotchkiss,  Berthier,  Schwartlose, 
and   Maxim   weapons.     So   far   as   the   arming   of 


156    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

aeroplanes  is  concerned  the  indispensable  condition 
is  light  weight.  With  airships  this  factor  is  not  so 
vital,  the  result  being  that  some  dirigibles  are 
mounted  with  guns,  throwing  one  pound  bursting 
shells,  fitted  either  with  delay  action  or  percussion 
fuses,  the  former  for  preference.  These  shells  are 
given  a  wide  cone  of  dispersion.  Experiments  are 
also  being  made  with  a  gun  similar  to  the  pom-pom 
which  proved  so  useful  in  South  Africa,  the  gun 
throwing  small  shells  varying  from  four  to  eight 
ounces  in  weight  at  high  velocity  and  in  rapid 
succession.  While  such  missiles  would  not  be 
Hkely  to  inflict  appreciable  damage  upon  an  armoured 
aeroplane,  they  would  nevertheless  be  disconcert- 
ing to  the  aviators  subjected  to  such  fire,  and 
in  atrial  combats  the  successful  undermining  of 
the  adversary's  moral  is  of  far  greater  importance 
than  in  land  operations,  since  immediately 
ascendancy  in  the  artillery  operations  is  attained 
the  final  issue  is  a  matter  of  moments. 

But  the  most  devastating  arm  which  has  yet 
been  contrived  for  atrial  operations  is  the  light 
machine  gun  which  has  recently  been  perfected. 
The  one  objective  with  this  weapon  is  to  disable 
the  hostile  aircraft's  machinery.  It  fires  an  armour 
piercing  projectile  which,  striking  the  motor  of  any 
aircraft,  would  instantly  put  the  latter  out  of  action. 
The  shell  has  a  diameter  of  about  75  inch  and  weighs 
about  four  ounces.  The  gun  is  a  hybrid  of  the 
mitrailleuse    and    the    French    "  Soixante-quinze," 


LIGHT   MACHINE   GUNS        157 

combining  the  firing  rapidity  of  the  former  with 
the  recoil  mechanism  of  the  latter.  This  missile 
has  estabUshed  its  ability  to  penetrate  the  defensive 
armouring  of  any  aeroplane  and  the  motor  of  the 
machine  at  1,000  yards'  range.  This  offensive  arm 
is  now  being  manufactured,  so  that  it  is  likely  to 
be  seen  in  the  near  future  as  the  main  armament  of 
aeroplanes. 

At  the  moment  widespread  efforts  are  being  made 
in  the  direction  of  increasing  the  offensive  efficiency 
of  aircraft.  It  is  one  of  the  phases  of  ingenuity 
which  has  been  stimulated  into  activity  as  a  result 
of  the  war. 


CHAPTER  XII 

BATTLES  IN  THE  AIR 

Ever  since  the  days  of  Jules  Verne  no  theme  has 
proved  so  popular  in  fiction  as  fighting  in  the  air. 
It  was  a  subject  which  lent  itself  to  vivid  imagination 
and  spirited  picturesque  portrayal.  Discussion 
might  be  provoked,  but  it  inevitably  proved  abortive, 
inasmuch  as  there  was  a  complete  absence  of  data 
based  upon  actual  experience.  The  novelist  was 
without  any  theory  :  he  avowedly  depended  upon 
the  brilliance  of  his  imagination.  The  critic  could 
only  theorise,  and  no  matter  how  dogmatic  his 
reasonings,  they  were  certainly  as  unconvincing  as 
those  of  the  object  of  his  attack. 

But  truth  has  proved  stranger  than  fiction.  The 
imaginative  pictures  of  the  novelist  have  not  only 
been  fulfilled  but  surpassed,  while  the  theorising 
critic  has  been  utterly  confounded.  Fighting  in  the 
air  has  become  so  inseparable  from  the  military 
operations  of  to-day  that  it  occurs  with  startling 
frequency.  A  contest  between  hostile  aeroplanes, 
hundreds  of   feet   above   the    earth,  is   no   longer 

158 


A   DUEL   IN    THE   CLOUDS      159 

regarded  as  a  dramatic,  thrilling  spectacle  :  it  has 
become  as  matter-of-fact  as  a  bayonet  mel^e  be- 
tween opposed  forces  of  infantry. 

A  duel  in  the  clouds  differs  from  any  other  form  of 
encounter.  It  is  fought  mercilessly :  there  can  be 
no  question  of  quarter  or  surrender.  The  white 
flag  is  no  protection,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
science  and  mechanical  ingenuity  have  failed,  so  far, 
to  devise  a  means  of  taking  an  aeroplane  in  tow. 
The  victor  has  no  possible  method  of  forcing  the 
vanquished  to  the  ground  in  his  own  territory 
except  driving.  If  such  a  move  be  made  there  is 
the  risk  that  the  latter  will  take  the  advantage  of 
a  critical  opportunity  to  effect  his  escape,  or  to  turn 
the  tables.  For  these  reasons  the  fight  is  fought  to 
a  conclusive  finish. 

To  aspire  to  success  in  these  combats  waged  in 
the  trackless  blue,  speed,  initiative,  and  daring  are 
essential.  Success  falls  to  the  swift  in  every  instance. 
An  aeroplane  travelling  at  a  high  speed,  and  pursuing 
an  undulating  or  irregular  trajectory  is  almost 
impossible  to  hit  from  the  ground,  as  sighting  is  so 
extremely  difficult.  Sighting  from  another  machine, 
which  likewise  is  travelling  rapidly,  and  pursuing  an 
irregular  path,  is  far  more  so.  Unless  the  attacker 
can  approach  relatively  closely  to  his  enemy  the 
possibility  of  hitting  him  is  extremely  remote. 
Rifle  or  gun-fire  must  be  absolutely  point  blank. 

When  a  marauding  aeroplane  is  espied  the 
attacking    corsair    immediately    struggles    for    the 


i6o    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

strategical  position,  which  is  above  his  adversary. 
To  fire  upwards  from  one  aeroplane  at  another  is 
virtually  impossible,  at  least  with  any  degree  of 
accuracy.  The  marksman  is  at  a  hopeless  dis- 
advantage. If  the  pilot  be  unaccompanied  and 
entirely  dependent  upon  his  own  resources  he  cannot 
hope  to  fire  vertically  above  him,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  in  so  doing  he  must  relinquish  control 
of  his  machine.  A  rifle  cannot  possibly  be  sighted 
under  such  conditions,  inasmuch  as  it  demands  that 
the  rifleman  shall  lean  back  so  as  to  obtain  control 
of  his  weapon  and  to  bring  it  to  bear  upon  his 
objective.  Even  if  a  long  range  Mauser  or  other 
automatic  pistol  of  the  latest  type  be  employed, 
two  hands  are  necessary  for  firing  purposes,  more 
particularly  as,  under  such  conditions,  the  machine, 
if  not  kept  under  control,  is  apt  to  lurch  and  pitch 
disconcertingly. 

Even  a  colleague  carried  for  the  express  purpose  of 
aggression  is  handicapped.  If  he  has  a  machine- 
gun,  such  as  a  Maxim  or  a  mitrailleuse,  it  is  almost 
out  of  the  question  to  train  it  vertically.  Its  useful 
vertical  training  arc  is  probably  limited  to  about 
80  degrees,  and  at  this  elevation  the  gunner  has  to 
assume  an  extremely  uncomfortable  position,  es- 
pecially upon  an  aeroplane,  where,  under  the  best 
of  circumstances,  he  is  somewhat  cramped. 

On  the  other  hand  the  man  in  the  aeroplane  above 
holds  the  dominating  position.  He  is  immediately 
above  his  adversary  and  firing  may  be  carried  out 


AERIAL   DUELS  i6i 

with  facility.  The  conditions  are  wholly  in  his 
favour.  Sighting  and  firing  downwards,  even  if 
absolutely  vertically,  imposes  the  minimum  physical 
effort,  with  the  result  that  the  marksman  is  able  to 
bring  a  steadier  aim  upon  his  adversary.  Even 
if  the  machine  be  carrying  only  the  pilot,  the 
latter  is  able  to  fire  upon  his  enemy  without 
necessarily  releasing  control  of  his  motor,  even  for 
a  moment. 

If  he  is  a  skilled  sharpshooter,  and  the  exigencies 
demand,  he  can  level,  sight,  and  fire  his  weapon 
with  one  hand,  while  under  such  circumstances  an 
automatic  self-loading  pistol  can  be  trained  upon 
the  objective  with  the  greatest  ease.  If  the  warplane 
be  carrying  a  second  person,  acting  as  a  gunner,  the 
latter  can  maintain  an  effective  rifle  fusillade,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  manipulate  his  machine-gun 
with  no  great  effort,  maintaining  rifle  fire  until  the 
pilot,  by  manoeuvring,  can  enable  the  mitrailleuse 
or  Maxim  to  be  used  to  the  greatest  advantage. 

Hence  the  wonderful  display  of  tactical  operations 
when  two  hostile  aeroplanes  sight  one  another. 
The  hunted  at  first  endeavours  to  learn  the  turn  of 
speed  which  his  antagonist  commands.  If  the 
latter  is  inferior,  the  pursued  can  either  profit  from 
his  advantage  and  race  away  to  safety,  or  at  once 
begin  to  manoeuvre  for  position.  If  he  is  made  of 
stern  stuff,  he  attempts  the  latter  feat  without 
delay.  The  pursuer,  if  he  realises  that  he  is  out- 
classed in  pace,  divines  that  his  quarry  will  start 

M 


i62    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

climbing  if  he  intends  to  show  fight,  so  he  begins  to 
dimb  also. 

Now  success  in  this  tactical  move  will  accrue  to 
the  machine  which  possesses  the  finest  climbing 
powers,  and  here  again,  of  course,  speed  is  certain 
to  count.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  prowess  of 
the  aviator — the  human  element  once  more — must 
not  be  ignored.  The  war  has  demonstrated  very 
convincingly  that  the  personal  quality  of  the 
aviator  often  becomes  the  decisive  factor. 

A  spirited  contest  in  the  air  is  one  of  the  grimmest 
and  most  thrilling  spectacles  possible  to  conceive, 
and  it  displays  the  skill  of  the  aviator  in  a  striking 
manner.  Daring  sweeps,  startling  wheels,  breath- 
less vol-planes,  and  remarkable  climbs  are  carried 
out.  One  wonders  how  the  machine  can  possibly 
withstand  the  racking  strains  to  which  it  is  subjected. 
The  average  aeroplane  demands  space  in  which  to 
describe  a  turn,  and  the  wheel  has  to  be  manipulated 
carefully  and  dexterously,  an  operation  requiring 
considerable  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  helmsman. 

But  in  an  aerial  duel  discretion  is  flung  to  the 
winds.  The  pilot  jambs  his  helm  over  in  his  keen 
struggle  to  gain  the  superior  position,  causing  the 
machine  to  groan  and  almost  to  heel  over.  The 
stern  stresses  of  war  have  served  to  reveal  the  per- 
fection of  the  modern  aeroplane  together  with  the 
remarkable  strength  of  its  construction.  In  one  or 
two  instances,  when  a  victor  has  come  to  earth, 
subsequent  examination  has  revealed  the  enormous 


WEAPONS    FOR   THE   AVIATOR    163 

strains  to  which  the  aeroplane  has  been  subjected. 
The  machine  has  been  distorted ;  wires  have  been 
broken — wires  which  have  succumbed  to  the 
enormous  stresses  which  have  been  imposed  and 
have  not  been  snapped  by  rifle  fire.  One  well- 
known  British  airman,  who  was  formerly  a  daring 
automobilist,  confided  to  me  that  a  fight  in  the  air 
''  is  the  finest  reliability  trial  for  an  aeroplane  that 
was  ever  devised  !  " 

In  these  desperate  struggles  for  aerial  supremacy 
the  one  party  endeavours  to  bring  his  opponent 
well  within  the  point-blank  range  of  his  armament : 
the  other  on  his  part  strives  just  as  valiantly  to  keep 
well  out  of  reach.  The  latter  knows  fully  well  that 
his  opponent  is  at  a  serious  disadvantage  when 
beyond  point-blank  range,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
in  sighting  the  rifle  or  automatic  pistol,  it  is  difficult, 
if  not  impossible  while  aloft,  to  judge  distances 
accurately,  and  to  make  the  correct  allowances  for 
windage. 

If,  however,  the  dominating  aviator  is  armed  with 
a  machine  gun  he  occupies  the  superior  position, 
because  he  can  pour  a  steady  hail  of  lead  upon  his 
enemy.  The  employment  of  such  a  weapon  when 
the  contest  is  being  waged  over  friendly  territory 
has  many  drawbacks.  Damage  is  likely  to  be 
inflicted  among  innocent  observers  on  the  earth 
below  ;  the  airman  is  likely  to  bombard  his  friends. 
For  this  very  reason  promiscuous  firing,  in  the  hope 
of  a  lucky  shot  finding  a  billet  in  the  hostile  machine, 

M  2 


i64    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

is  not  practised.  Both  parties  appear  to  reserve 
their  fire  until  they  have  drawn  within  what  may 
be  described  as  fighting  distance,  otherwise  point 
blank  range,  which  may  be  anything  up  to  300  yards. 

Some  of  the  battles  between  the  German  and  the 
French  or  British  aeroplanes  have  been  waged  with 
a  total  disregard  of  the  consequences.  Both  realise 
that  one  or  the  other  must  perish,  and  each  is 
equally  determined  to  triumph.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  animosity  between  the  opposing  forces 
is  manifested  anywhere  so  acutely  as  in  the  air. 
In  some  instances  the  combat  has  commenced  at 
300  feet  or  so  above  the  earth,  and  has  been  fought 
so  desperately,  the  machines  climbing  and  endeavour- 
ing to  outmanoeuvre  each  other,  that  an  altitude  of 
over  5,000  feet  has  been  attained  before  they  have 
come  to  close  grips. 

The  French  aviator  is  nimble,  and  impetuous : 
the  German  aviator  is  daring,  but  slow  in  thought : 
the  British  airman  is  a  master  of  strategy,  quick  in 
thought,  and  prepared  to  risk  anything  to  achieve 
his  end.  The  German  airman  is  sent  aloft  to  re- 
connoitre the  enemy  and  to  communicate  his  in- 
formation to  his  headquarters.  That  is  his  assigned 
duty  and  he  performs  it  mechanically,  declining  to 
fight,  as  the  welfare  of  his  colleagues  below  is  con- 
sidered to  be  of  more  vital  importance  than  his 
personal  superiority  in  an  aerial  contest.  But  if 
he  is  cornered  he  fights  with  a  terrible  and  fatalistic 
desperation. 


AEROPLANE  VERSUS  DIRIGIBLE  165 

The  bravery  of  the  German  airmen  is  appreciated 
by  the  Allies.  The  French  flying-man,  with  his 
traditional  love  for  individual  combat,  seeks  and 
keenly  enjoys  a  duel.  The  British  airman  regards 
such  a  contest  as  a  mere  incident  in  the  round  of 
duty,  but  willingly  accepts  the  challenge  when  it  is 
offered.  It  is  this  manifestation  of  what  may  be 
described  as  acquiescence  in  any  development 
that  enabled  the  British  flying  corps,  although 
numerically  inferior,  to  gain  its  mastery  of  the  air 
so  unostentatiously  and  yet  so  completely. 

All  things  considered  an  aeroplane  duel  is  regarded 
as  a  fairly  equal  combat.  But  what  of  a  duel 
between  an  aeroplane  and  a  dirigible  ?  Which  holds 
the  advantage  ?  This  question  has  not  been  settled, 
at  any  rate  conclusively,  but  it  is  generally  conceded 
that  up  to  a  certain  point  the  dirigible  is  superior. 
It  certainly  offers  a  huge  and  attractive  target, 
but  rifle  fire  at  its  prominent  gas-bag  is  not  going  to 
cause  much  havoc.  The  punctures  of  the  envelope 
may  represent  so  many  vents  through  which  the 
gas  within  may  effect  a  gradual  escape,  but  consider- 
able time  must  elapse  before  the  effect  of  such  a 
bombardment  becomes  pronounced  in  its  result, 
unless  the  gas-bag  is  absolutely  riddled  with 
machine  gun-fire,  when  descent  must  be  accelerated. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the 
dirigible  is  armed.  In  this  event  it  has  a  distinct 
advantage.  It  has  a  steady  gun-platform  enabling 
the  weapons  of  oflence  to  be  trained  more  easily 


i66    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

and  an  enhanced  accuracy  of  fire  to  be  obtained. 
In  order  to  achieve  success  it  is  practically  im- 
perative that  an  aeroplane  should  obtain  a  position 
above  the  dirigible,  but  the  latter  can  ascend  in 
a  much  shorter  space  of  time,  because  its  ascent  is 
vertical,  whereas  the  aeroplane  must  describe  a 
spiral  in  climbing.  Under  these  circumstances  it 
is  relatively  easy  for  the  airship  to  outmanoeuvre 
the  aeroplane  in  the  vertical  plane,  and  to  hold 
the  dominating  position. 

But  even  should  the  aeroplane  obtain  the  upper 
position  it  is  not  regarded  with  fear.  Some  of 
the  latest  Zeppelins  have  a  machine  gun  mounted 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  envelope,  which  can 
be  trained  through  360  degrees  and  elevated  to 
about  80  degrees  vertical.  Owing  to  the  steady 
gun  platform  offered  it  holds  command  in  gun-fire, 
so  that  the  aeroplane,  unless  the  aviator  is  excep- 
tionally daring,  will  not  venture  within  the  range  of 
the  dirigible.  It  is  stated,  however,  that  this 
upper  gun  has  proved  unsatisfactory,  owing  to  the 
stresses  and  strains  imposed  upon  the  framework 
of  the  envelope  of  the  Zeppelin  during  firing,  and 
it  has  apparently  been  abandoned.  The  position, 
however,  is  still  available  for  a  sniper  or  sharp- 
shooter. 

The  position  in  the  sky  between  two  such  com- 
batants is  closely  analogous  to  that  of  a  torpedo 
boat  and  a  Dreadnought.  The  latter,  so  long  as 
it  can  keep  the  former  at  arm's,  or  rather  gun's, 


RAMMING  A  DIRIGIBLE        167 

distance  is  perfectly  safe.  The  torpedo  boat  can 
only  aspire  to  harass  its  enemy  by  buzzing  around, 
hoping  that  a  lucky  opportunity  will  develop  to 
enable  it  to  rush  in  and  to  launch  its  torpedo.  It 
is  the  same  with  the  aeroplane  when  arrayed  against 
a  Zeppelin.     It  is  the  mosquito  craft  of  the  air. 

How  then  can  a  heavier-than-air  machine  triumph 
over  the  unwieldy  lighter-than-air  antagonist  ? 
Two  solutions  are  available.  If  it  can  get  above 
the  dirigible  the  aeroplane  may  bring  about  the 
dirigible's  destruction  by  the  successful  launch  of 
a  bomb.  The  detonation  of  the  latter  would  fire 
the  hydrogen  within  the  gas-bag  or  bags,  in  which 
event  the  airship  would  fall  to  earth  a  tangled  wreck. 
Even  if  the  airship  were  inflated  with  a  non-inflam- 
mable gas — the  Germans  claim  that  their  Zeppelins 
now  are  so  inflated — the  damage  wrought  by  the 
bomb  would  be  so  severe  as  to  destroy  the  airship's 
buoyancy,  and  it  would  be  forced  to  the  ground. 

The  alternative  is  very  much  more  desperate.  It 
involves  ramming  the  dirigible.  This  is  undoubtedly 
possible  owing  to  the  speed  and  facile  control  of 
the  aeroplane,  but  whether  the  operation  would  be 
successful  remains  to  be  proved.  The  aeroplane 
would  be  faced  with  such  a  concentrated  hostile 
fire  as  to  menace  its  own  existence — its  forward 
rush  would  be  frustrated  by  the  dirigible  just  as 
a  naval  vessel  parries  the  ramming  tactics  of  an 
enemy  by  sinking  the  latter  before  she  reaches  her 
target,  while  if  it  did  crash  into  the  hull  of  the 


i68    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

dirigible,  tearing  it  to  shreds,  firing  its  gas,  or 
destroying  its  equilibrium,  both  protagonists  would 
perish  in  the  fatal  dive  to  earth.  For  this  reason 
ramming  in  mid-air  is  not  likely  to  be  essayed 
except  when  the  situation  is  desperate. 

What  happens  when  two  aeroplanes  meet  in  dire 
combat  in  mid-air  and  one  is  vanquished  ?  Does 
the  unfortunate  vessel  drop  to  earth  like  a  stone,  or 
does  it  descend  steadily  and  reach  the  ground 
uninjured  ?  So  far  as  actual  experience  has  proved, 
either  one  of  the  foregoing  contingencies  may  happen. 
In  one  such  duel  the  German  aeroplane  was  observed 
to  start  suddenly  upon  a  vol-plane  to  the  ground. 
Its  descending  flight  carried  it  beyond  the  lines 
of  the  Allies  into  the  territory  of  its  friends.  Both 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  aviator  had  effected 
his  escape.  But  subsequent  investigation  revealed 
the  fact  that  a  lucky  bullet  from  the  Allies'  aeroplane 
had  lodged  in  the  brain  of  the  German  pilot,  killing 
him  instantly.  At  the  moment  when  Death  over- 
took him  the  aviator  had  set  his  plane  for  the  descent 
to  the  ground,  and  the  machine  came  to  earth  in 
the  manner  of  a  glider. 

But  in  other  instances  the  descent  has  been  far 
more  tragic.  The  aeroplane,  deprived  of  its  motive 
power,  has  taken  the  deadly  headlong  dive  to  earth. 
It  has  struck  the  ground  with  terrific  violence, 
burying  its  nose  in  the  soil,  showing  incidentally 
that  a  flying  machine  is  an  indifferent  plough,  and 
has   shattered   itself,   the  dibris   soaked   with   the 


VULNERABLE   POINTS  169 

escaping  fuel  becoming  ignited.  In  any  event,  after 
such  a  fall  the  machine  is  certain  to  be  a  wreck. 
The  motor  may  escape  damage,  in  which  event  it 
is  salvaged,  the  machine  subsequently  being  pur- 
posely sacrificed  to  the  flames,  thereby  rendering 
it  no  longer  available  to  the  enemy  even  if 
captured.  In  many  instances  the  hostile  fire  has 
smashed  some  of  the  stays  and  wires,  causing  the 
aeroplane  to  lose  its  equilibrium,  and  sending  it  to 
earth  in  the  manner  of  the  proverbial  stone,  the 
aviators  either  being  dashed  to  pieces  or  burned  to 
death. 

What  are  the  vulnerable  parts  of  the  aeroplane  ? 
While  the  deliberate  intention  of  either  combatant  is 
to  put  his  antagonist  hors  de  combat,  the  disablement 
of  the  machine  may  be  achieved  without  necessarily 
killing  or  even  seriously  wounding  the  hostile  air- 
man. The  prevailing  type  of  aeroplane  is  highly 
susceptible  to  derangement :  it  is  like  a  ship  without 
armour  plate  protection.  The  objective  of  the 
antagonist  is  the  motor  or  the  fuel-tank,  the  vital 
parts  of  the  machine,  as  much  as  the  aviator  seated 
within. 

A  well-planted  shot,  which  upsets  the  mechanism 
of  the  engine,  or  a  missile  which  perforates  the  fuel 
tank,  thereby  depriving  the  motor  of  its  sustenance, 
will  ensure  victory  as  conclusively  as  the  death  of 
the  aviator  himself.  Rifle  fire  can  achieve  either  of 
these  ends  with  Httle  difficulty.  Apart  from  these 
two  nerve-centres,  bombardment  is  not  Ukely  to 


lyo    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

effect  the  desired  disablement,  inasmuch  as  it  cannot 
be  rendered  completely  effective.  The  wings  may 
be  riddled  like  a  sieve,  but  the  equilibrium  of  the 
machine  is  not  seriously  imperilled  thereby.  Even 
many  of  the  stays  may  be  shot  away,  but  bearing 
in  mind  the  slender  objective  they  offer,  their 
destruction  is  likely  to  be  due  more  to  luck  than 
judgment.  On  the  other  hand,  the  motor  and  fuel 
tank  of  the  conventional  machine  offer  attractive 
targets  :  both  may  be  put  out  of  action  readily, 
and  the  disablement  of  the  motive  power  of  an 
enemy's  craft,  be  it  torpedo-boat,  battleship,  or 
aeroplane,  immediately  places  the  same  at  the  assail- 
ant's mercy. 

Nevertheless,  of  course,  the  disablement  of  the 
airman  brings  about  the  desired  end  very  effectively. 
It  deprives  the  driving  force  of  its  controlling  hand. 
The  aeroplane  becomes  like  a  ship  without  a  rudder  : 
a  vessel  whose  helmsman  has  been  shot  down.  It 
is  unmanageable,  and  likely  to  become  the  sport  of 
the  element  in  which  it  moves.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  aviators  have  been  urged  to  direct  their  fire 
upon  the  men  and  mechanism  of  a  dirigible  in  the 
effort  to  put  it  out  of  action.  An  uncontrolled 
airship  is  more  likely  to  meet  with  its  doom  than  an 
aeroplane.  The  latter  will  inevitably  glide  to  earth, 
possibly  damaging  itself  seriously  in  the  process, 
as  events  in  the  war  have  demonstrated,  but  a 
helpless  airship  at  once  becomes  the  sport  of  the  wind, 
and  anyone  who  has  assisted,  like  myself,  in  the 


SMOKE   BALLS  171 

descent  of  a  vessel  charged  with  gas  and  floating  in 
the  air,  can  appreciate  the  difficulties  experienced  in 
landing.  An  uncontrolled  ZeppeHn,  for  instance, 
would  inevitably  pile  up  in  a  tangled  twisted  ruin  if 
forced  to  descend  in  the  manner  of  an  ordinary 
balloon.  Consequently  the  pilot  of  a  dirigible 
realises  to  the  full  the  imperative  urgency  of  keeping 
beyond  the  point-blank  fire  of  atrial  mosquito 
craft. 

The  assiduity  with  which  British  aviators  are 
prepared  to  swarm  to  the  attack  has  been  responsible 
for  a  display  of  commendable  ingenuity  on  the 
part  of  the  German  airman.  Nature  has  provided 
some  of  its  creatures,  such  as  the  octopus,  for  instance, 
with  the  ways  and  means  of  baffling  its  pursuers. 
It  emits  dense  clouds  of  inky  fluid  when  disturbed, 
and  is  able  to  effect  its  escape  under  cover  of  this 
screen. 

The  German  aviator  has  emulated  the  octopus. 
He  carries  not  only  explosive  bombs  but  smoke 
balls  as  well.  When  he  is  pursued  and  he  finds 
himself  in  danger  of  being  overtaken,  the  Teuton 
aviator  ignites  these  missiles  and  throws  them  over- 
board. The  aeroplane  becomes  enveloped  in  a 
cloud  of  thick  impenetrable  smoke.  It  is  useless  to 
fire  haphazard  at  the  cloud,  inasmuch  as  it  does  not 
necessarily  cover  the  aviator.  He  probably  has 
dashed  out  of  the  cloud  in  such  a  way  as  to  put  the 
screen  between  himself  and  his  pursuer  (Fig.  12). 

In  such  tactics  he  has  merely  profited  by  a  method 


172    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

which  is  practised  freely  upon  the  water.  The 
torpedo  boat  flotilla  when  in  danger  of  being  over- 
whelmed by  superior  forces  will  throw  off  copious 
clouds  of  smoke.     Under  this  cover  it  is  able  to  steal 


y  3 


Fig.  12. — The  "Smoke  Screen"  in  the  Air. 

B  is  being  overhauled  by  A,  both  flying  in  the  direction  H. 

B  fires  a  smoke  ball  E,  and  under  cover  thereof  doubles  back, 

following  route  F,  while  A  maintains  his  direction  C.     Under 

the  cover  of  smoke  B  makes  his  escape. 

away,  trusting  to  the  speed  of  the  craft  to  carry 
them  well  beyond  gunshot.  The  "  smoke  screen,"  as 
it  is  called,  is  an  accepted  and  extensively  practised 
ruse  in  naval  strategy,  and  is  now  adopted  by  its 
mosquito  colleagues  of  the  air. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

TRICKS  AND  RUSES  TO  BAFFLE  THE  AIRMAN 

The  airman  has  not  been  allowed  to  hold  his  un- 
disputed sway  in  military  operations  for  long.  Des- 
perate situations  demand  drastic  remedies  and 
already  considerable  and  illuminating  ingenuity  is 
being  displayed  to  baffle  and  mislead  the  scout  of 
the  skies. 

It  is  a  somewhat  curious  and  noteworthy  fact, 
that  the  Germans  were  among  the  first  to  realise 
the  scope  of  the  airman's  activities,  and  the  sig- 
nificance of  their  relation  to  the  conveyance  of 
intimate  information  and  the  direction  of  artillery 
fire.  Consequently,  they  now  spare  no  effort  to 
convey  illusory  information,  in  the  hope  that  the 
hostile  force  may  ultimately  make  a  false  move 
which  may  culminate  in  disaster. 

Thus,  for  instance,  as  much  endeavour  is  bestowed 
upon  the  fashioning  of  dummy  trenches  as  upon 
the  preparation  of  the  actual  lines  of  defence.  And 
every  care  will  be  taken  to  indicate  that  the  former 
are  strongly  held.    The  dug-outs  are  complete  and 


174    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

at  places  are  apparently  cunningly  masked.  If 
the  airman  is  flying  swiftly,  he  is  likely  to  fail  to 
distinguish  the  dummy  from  the  real  trenches. 
To  him  the  defences  appear  to  be  far  more  elaborate 
and  more  strongly  held  than  is  the  actual  case. 

The  advantage  of  this  delusion  is  obvious  when  a 
retreat  is  being  made.  It  enables  the  enemy  to 
withdraw  his  forces  deliberately  and  in  perfect 
order,  and  to  assume  another  and  stronger  position 
comparatively  at  leisure.  The  difficulty  of  detecting 
the  dummies  is  emphasised,  inasmuch  as  now, 
whenever  the  sound  of  an  aeroplane  is  heard,  or  a 
glimpse  thereof  is  obtained,  the  men  keep  well  down 
and  out  of  sight.  Not  a  sign  of  movement  is 
observable.  For  all  the  airman  may  know  to  the 
contrary,  the  trenches  may  be  completely  empty, 
whereas,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  throbbing 
with  alert  infantry,  anxious  for  a  struggle  with  the 
enemy. 

This  is  one  instance  where  the  dirigible  is  superior 
to  the  aeroplane.  The  latter  can  only  keep  circling 
round  and  round  over  the  suspicious  position ; 
the  movement  through  the  air  interferes  with  close 
continuous  observation.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
dirigible  can  maintain  a  stationary  position  aloft 
for  hours  on  end.  Then  the  issue  is  resolved  into 
a  contest  of  patience,  with  the  advantage  to  the 
airman.  The  soldiers  in  the  trenches  fret  and  fume 
under  cover ;  confined  concealment  is  irksome  and 
is  a  supreme  test  of  the  nerves.     Unless  the  soldiers 


MISLEADING   RUSES  175 

are  made  of  very  stern  stuff,  physical  endurance 
succumbs.  Some  rash  act — apparently  very  trivial — 
may  be  committed ;  it  suffices  for  the  vigilant 
sentinel  overhead.  He  detects  the  slender  sign  of 
life,  forms  his  own  conclusions,  and  returns  to  his 
headquarters  with  the  intelligence  that  the  enemy 
is  playing  "  Brer  Rabbit." 

It  has  also  become  increasingly  difficult  for  the 
airman  to  gather  absolutely  trustworthy  data 
concerning  the  disposition  and  movement  of  troops. 
Small  columns  are  now  strung  out  along  the  highways 
to  convey  the  impression  that  the  moving  troops 
are  in  far  greater  force  than  is  actually  the  case, 
while  the  main  body  is  under  the  cover  offered  by 
a  friendly  wood  and  is  safe  from  detection.  The 
rapidity  with  which  thousands  of  men  are  able 
to  disappear  when  the  word  *'  Airman  "  is  passed 
round  is  astonishing.  They  vanish  as  completely 
and  suddenly  as  if  swallowed  by  the  earth  or  dissolved 
into  thin  air.  They  conceal  themselves  under  bushes, 
in  ditches,  lie  prone  under  hedgerows,  dart  into 
houses  and  outbuildings — in  short,  take  every  cover 
which  is  available,  no  matter  how  slender  it  may 
seem,  with  baffling  alacrity.  The  attenuated  column, 
however,  is  kept  moving  along  the  highway  for  the 
express  purpose  of  deceiving  the  airman. 

Advancing  troops  also  are  now  urged  to  move  for- 
ward under  the  shelter  of  trees,  even  if  the  task  entails 
marching  in  single  or  double  file,  to  escape  the  prying 
eyes  of  the  man  above.     By  keeping  close  to  the 


176    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

line  of  trunks,  thus  taking  full  advantage  of  the 
overhanging  branches,  and  marching  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  create  little  dust,  it  is  possible  to  escape 
the  aerial  scout. 

The  concealment  of  cavalry,  however,  is  somewhat 
difficult.  An  animal,  especially  if  he  be  unaccus- 
tomed to  the  noise  of  the  aeroplane,  is  likely  to 
become  startled,  and  to  give  vent  to  a  frightened 
and  vociferous  neighing  which  invariably  provokes 
a  hearty  response  from  his  equine  comrades.  The 
sharp  ear  of  the  airman  does  not  fail  to  distinguish 
this  sound  above  the  music  of  his  motor.  Again, 
he  has  come  to  regard  all  copses  and  stretches  of 
undergrowth  with  suspicion.  Such  may  or  may 
not  harbour  the  enemy,  but  there  is  no  risk  in  making 
an  investigation.  He  swoops  down,  and  when  a 
short  distance  above  the  apparently  innocent 
copse,  circles  round  it  two  or  three  times.  Still 
undecided,  he  finally  hurls  a  bomb.  Its  detonation 
invariably  proves  effective.  The  horses  stampede 
and  the  secret  is  out.  Even  foot  soldiers  must  be 
severely  trained  and  experienced  to  resist  the 
natural  inclination  to  break  cover  when  such  a 
missile  is  hurled  into  their  midst. 

Frequently  a  force,  which  has  laboured  under  the 
impression  that  it  is  safe  from  detection,  has  revealed 
its  presence  unwittingly  and  upon  the  spur  of  the 
moment.  If  the  men  be  steeled  against  the  bomb 
attack,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  resist  the  inclination 
to  take  a  shot  when  the  airman,  swooping  down, 


FRENCH   DEVICES  177 

ventures  so  temptingly  near  as  to  render  him  an 
enticing  target  almost  impossible  to  miss.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  observer  is  on  the  alert  for  such  a 
betrayal  of  a  force's  existence.  When  the  bomb  fails 
to  scatter  the  enemy,  or  the  men  are  proof  against 
the  temptation  to  fire  a  volley,  a  few  rounds  from 
the  aeroplane's  machine  gun  often  proves  effective. 
If  the  copse  indeed  be  empty  no  harm  is  done,  beyond 
the  abortive  expenditure  of  a  few  rounds  of  ammu- 
nition :  if  it  be  occupied,  the  fruits  of  the  manoeuvre 
are  attractive.  Cunning  is  matched  against  cunning, 
and  the  struggle  for  supremacy  in  the  art  of  crafti- 
ness is  keen. 

The  French  Flying  Corps  have  had  recourse  to  an 
ingenious  ruse  for  accompHshing  two  ends — the  one 
to  draw  concealed  artillery  fire,  and  the  other  to 
pre-occupy  the  airmen.  Two  German  aerial  scouts 
observed  a  French  machine  flying  at  a  somewhat 
venturesome  height  over  their  masked  artillery. 
Divining  the  reason  for  the  hostile  intrepidity  they 
gave  chase.  Circling  round  the  French  machine 
they  assailed  it  with  machine-gun  fire.  The  enemy 
appeared  to  take  no  notice  but  continued  his  gradual 
descent  in  a  steady  line. 

Presently  the  German  airmen,  having  drawn 
sufficiently  near,  observed  that  the  French  aviator 
was  inert.  Had  he  been  killed  ?  Everything  pointed 
to  such  a  conclusion,  especially  as  they  had  raked  the 
aeroplane  fore  and  aft  with  bullets.  But  still 
suspicious  they  continued  their  circling  movements, 

N 


178    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

their  attention  so  concentrated  upon  their  quarry 
that  they  had  not  observed  another  move.  It  was 
the  crash  of  guns  from  their  masked  artillery  which 
broke  in  upon  their  absorption.  Looking  round,  they 
observed  three  French  aeroplanes  soaring  around  and 
above  them  at  high  speed.  Scarcely  had  they 
realised  the  situation  before  a  spirited  mitrailleuse 
fire  was  rained  upon  them.  One  of  the  German 
aeroplanes  was  speedily  disabled.  Its  fuel  tank  was 
riddled  and  it  sank  rapidly,  finally  crashing  to  earth 
in  the  deadly  dive  head  foremost,  and  killing  both 
its  occupants  in  the  fall.  The  second  aeroplane 
hurried  away  with  its  pilot  wounded.  In  the 
excitement  of  the  aerial  melee  the  first  French 
aeroplane  had  been  forgotten.  It  was  now  scarcely 
100  feet  above  the  German  artillery.  A  capture 
appeared  to  be  imminent,  but  the  Germans  received 
a  rude  surprise.  Suddenly  the  aeroplane  exploded 
and  a  hail  of  shrapnel  burst  over  the  heads  of  the 
artillerymen. 

The  circumstance  was  decidedly  uncanny,  but 
after  two  or  three  such  experiences  of  exploding 
aeroplanes  the  matter  was  explained.  The  appar- 
ently helpless  aeroplane  was  merely  a  gUder,  which, 
instead  of  carrying  a  man,  had  a  booby-trap  aboard. 

It  appears  that  the  French  airmen  have  found  a 
use  for  the  aeroplanes  which  are  considered  unsafe 
for  further  use.  The  motor  and  propeller  are 
removed  and  the  dummy  of  explosives  is  strapped 
into  position.    The  laden  glider  is  then  taken  aloft 


CONCEALMENT  OF   GUNS       179 

by  means  of  an  airship,  and  in  the  concealment  of 
the  clouds  is  released,  the  rudder  being  so  set  as  to 
ensure  a  gradual  vol-plane  towards  the  suspicious 
position  below.  The  explosive  cargo  is  set  with  a 
time  fuse,  the  arrangement  being  that  the  contents 
will  be  detonated  while  the  machine  is  near  the  ground, 
unless  this  end  is  accelerated  by  a  well-planted  shell 
from  an  anti-aircraft  gun.  The  decoy  glider  is 
generally  accompanied  by  one  or  two  aeroplanes 
under  control,  which  keep  under  the  cover  of  the 
clouds  until  the  hostile  aviators  have  been  drawn 
into  the  air,  when  they  swoop  down  to  the  attack. 
The  raiders  are  fully  aware  that  they  are  not  Hkely 
to  become  the  target  of  fire  from  the  ground,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  enemy's  artillery  might  hit  its 
friends.  Consequently  the  antagonistic  airmen  are 
left  to  settle  their  own  account.  In  the  meantime 
the  dummy  machine  draws  nearer  to  the  ground  to 
explode  and  to  scatter  its  death-dealing  fragments 
of  steel,  iron,  and  bullets  in  all  directions. 

Possibly  in  no  other  phase  of  warfare  is  subterfuge 
practised  so  extensively  as  in  the  concealment  of 
guns.  The  branches  of  trees  constitute  the  most 
complete  protection  and  guns  are  placed  in  position 
beneath  a  liberal  cover  of  this  character.  The 
branches  also  offer  a  screen  for  the  artillerymen,  who 
can  lurk  beneath  this  shelter  until  the  aeroplane 
has  passed.  To  complete  the  illusion  dummy  guns 
fashioned  from  tree  trunks  and  the  wheels  of  useless 
limbers  are  rigged  up,  and  partially  hidden  under 

N  2 


i8o    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

branches,  the  idea  being  to  convey  the  impression 
to  the  man  aloft  that  they  are  the  actual  artillery. 

The  aerial  scout  observes  the  dummies  beneath  the 
sparse  covering  of  branches.  Congratulating  himself 
upon  his  sharp  eyesight,  he  returns  to  his  base  with 
the  intelligence  that  he  has  found  the  enemy's  guns ; 
he  indicates  their  position  upon  the  map,  and  in 
some  cases  returns  to  notify  the  position  of  the 
weapons  by  smoke-ball  or  tinsel,  when  they  are 
immediately  subjected  to  a  severe  bombardment. 
He  follows  the  shell-fire  and  sees  the  arms  put  out  of 
action.  He  returns  to  camp  satisfied  with  his 
exploit,  oblivious  of  the  smiles  and  laughter  of  the 
hostile  artillerymen,  who  have  their  guns  safely  in 
position  and  well  masked  some  distance  away.  The 
dummies  are  imperfectly  concealed  purposely,  so 
that  they  may  be  discovered  by  the  aerial  scout, 
while  the  real  guns  are  completely  masked  and  ready 
to  belch  forth  from  another  point.  In  one  or  two 
cases  the  dummies  have  been  rigged  up  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  convey  the  impression,  when  seen 
from  aloft,  that  a  whole  battery  has  been  put  out  of 
action,  barrels  and  wheels  as  well  as  broken  limbers 
strewing  the  ground  in  all  directions. 

Moving  masses  of  soldiers  are  also  resorting  to 
cunning  in  order  to  mislead  the  airman  or  to  escape 
his  observation.  At  the  battle  of  Haelen,  during 
which  engagement  the  German  warplanes  were 
exceptionally  active,  the  Belgian  soldiers  covered 
their  heads  with  bundles  of  wheat  snatched  from  the 


GERMAN   DEVICES  i8i 

standing  stocks,  and  under  this  cover  lurked  in  a 
field  where  the  corn  was  still  standing.  From  aloft 
their  forms  defied  detection  :  the  improvised  head- 
gear completely  covered  them  and  blended  effectively 
with  the  surrounding  wheat.  In  another  instance 
the  French  misled  a  German  airman  somewhat 
effectively.  What  appeared  to  be  cavalry  was  seen 
to  be  retreating  along  the  country  road,  and  the 
airman  returned  hurriedly  to  report.  A  German 
squadron  was  dispatched  in  hasty  pursuit.  But  as 
it  rounded  a  copse  skirting  the  road  it  received  a 
murderous  fire  at  close  quarters,  which  decimated  the 
ranks  and  sent  the  survivors  flying  for  their  lives 
along  the  road  up  which  they  had  ridden  so  con- 
fidently. Had  the  aviator  been  in  a  position  to 
observe  the  horses  more  closely,  he  would  have  found 
that  what  appeared  to  be  riders  on  their  backs  were 
in  reality  sacks  stuffed  with  straw,  dressed  in  old 
uniforms,  and  that  a  mere  handful  of  men  were 
driving  the  animals  forward.  The  cavalrymen  had 
purposely  dismounted  and  secreted  themselves  in 
the  wood  in  anticipation  of  such  a  pursuit  as  was 
made. 

While  the  Germans  do  not  appear  to  be  so  enter- 
prising in  this  form  of  ingenuity  they  have  not  been 
idle.  A  French  airman  flying  over  the  Teuton  lines 
observed  the  outermost  trenches  to  be  alive  with 
men  whose  helmets  were  distinctly  visible.  The 
airman  reported  his  observations  and  the  trench  was 
subjected  to  terrific  shell  fire.     Subsequently  the 


i82    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

French  made  a  spirited  charge,  but  to  their  dismay 
found  that  the  outermost  German  trench  was  occupied 
by  dummies  fashioned  from  all  sorts  of  materials 
and  crowned  with  helmets  !  This  ruse  had  enabled 
the  German  lines  to  be  withdrawn  to  another  position 
in  safety  and  comparatively  at  leisure. 

Before  war  was  declared  the  German  military 
experts  were  emphasising  the  importance  of  trees  for 
masking  troops  and  guns  against  aerial  observation. 
One  of  the  foremost  authorities  upon  military 
aviation  only  a  few  months  ago  urged  the  German 
Military  Staff  to  encourage  the  planting  of  orchards, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  benefiting  agriculture  or  in  the 
interests  of  the  farmers,  but  merely  for  military 
exigencies. 

He  pointed  to  the  extensive  orchards  which  exist 
in  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Baden,  the  military  covering 
value  of  which  he  had  determined  from  personal 
experience,  having  conducted  aerial  operations 
while  military  were  moving  to  and  fro  under  the 
cover  of  the  trees.  He  declared  that  the  cover 
was  efficient  and  that  under  the  circumstances  the 
laying  out  of  extensive  orchards  in  strategical 
places  should  be  carried  out  without  any  delay. 
This,  he  urged,  was  a  national  and  not  a  private 
obhgation.  He  advocated  the  bestowal  of  subsidies 
on  the  farmers  to  encourage  the  planting  of  fruit 
trees.  He  suggested  that  the  trees  should  be  pro- 
vided by  the  State,  and  given  to  all  who  were 
prepared  to  plant  them ;    that  substantial  prizes 


MILITARY   AFFORESTATION     183 

should  be  awarded  to  encourage  the  rapid  growth 
thereof,  and  that  annual  prizes  should  be  awarded 
to  the  man  who  would  undertake  their  cultivation 
and  pruning,  not  from  the  fruit-yielding  point  of 
view,  but  for  facilitating  the  movement  of  troops 
beneath  their  dense  branches. 

He  even  urged  the  military  acquisition  of  suitable 
land  and  its  determined,  skilful,  and  discreet  exploit- 
ation by  those  who  loved  the  Fatherland.  He 
emphasised  the  necessity  for  keeping  such  orchards 
under  military  control,  only  vouchsafing  sufficient 
powers  to  the  local  authorities  to  ensure  the  desired 
consummation.  He  maintained  that,  if  the  work 
were  prosecuted  upon  the  right  Hues  and  sufficient 
financial  assistance  were  given,  the  purpose  in 
view  could  be  achieved  without  saddling  the  war 
department  with  any  unremunerative  or  excessive 
burden.  He  admitted  that  the  process  of  raising 
fruit  trees  to  the  stage  when  they  would  afford 
adequate  cover  would  be  tedious  and  somewhat 
prolonged,  but  argued  that  the  mihtary  advantages, 
such  as  enabhng  troops  to  move  below  the  welcome 
shelter  with  absolute  freedom  and  without  physical 
fatigue,  would  be  an  ample  compensation. 

The  utility  of  such  cover  to  artillery  was  another 
factor  he  did  not  fail  to  emphasise.  He  dwelt 
seriously  upon  the  difficulty  of  rendering  permanent 
gun  emplacements  and  heavy  artillery  invisible 
to  the  airman  by  resort  to  the  usual  type  of  gun- 
shields.    The  latter  may  be  located  with  ease  by 


1 84    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

alert  airmen,  whereas  if  the  guns  were  under  cover 
of  fruit  trees  they  would  be  able  to  accomplish  their 
deadly  mission  without  betraying  their  presence 
to  the  aerial  scout.  Moreover,  by  pruning  the  trees 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  ensure  free  movement  beneath, 
the  artillery  would  be  able  to  advance  without 
betraying  the  fact  to  the  enemy. 

This  authority  vigorously  insisted  that  the  work 
should  be  carried  out  without  a  moment's  delay 
as  it  was  vital  to  the  Fatherland.  In  the  light 
of  recent  events,  and  the  excellent  cover  which  is 
offered  by  the  orchards  of  the  territory  he  cited 
as  an  illustration  of  his  contention,  such  a  disclosure 
is  pregnant  with  meaning.  It  throws  a  new  light 
upon  the  thorough  methods  with  which  the  Germans 
carried  out  their  rnilitary  preparations,  and  inci- 
dentally shows  that  they  were  fully  alive  to  every 
possible  development.  Fruit-raising  as  a  comple- 
ment to  military  operations  may  be  a  new  hne  of 
discussion,  but  it  serves  to  reveal  the  German  in 
his  true  light,  ready  for  every  contingency,  and 
shows  how  thoroughly  he  appreciates  the  danger 
from  the  man  in  the  clouds. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

ANTI-AIRCRAFT  GUNS.      MOBILE  WEAPONS. 

When  the  airship  and  the  aeroplane  became 
accepted  units  of  warfare  it  was  only  natural  that 
efforts  should  be  concentrated  upon  the  evolution 
of  ways  and  means  to  compass  their  destruction, 
or,  at  least,  to  restrict  their  field  of  activity.  But 
aircraft  appeared  to  have  an  immense  advantage 
in  combat.  They  possess  virtually  unlimited  space 
in  which  to  manoeuvre,  and  are  able  to  select  the 
elevation  from  which  to  hurl  their  missiles  of 
destruction. 

There  is  another  and  even  more  important  factor 
in  their  favour.  A  projectile  fired,  or  even  dropped, 
from  a  height,  say  of  5,000  feet,  is  favourably  affected 
by  the  force  of  gravity,  with  the  result  that  it  travels 
towards  the  earth  with  accumulating  energy  and 
strikes  the  ground  with  decisive  force. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  missile  discharged  into  space 
from  a  weapon  on  the  earth  has  to  combat  this 
action  of  gravity,  which  exercises  a  powerful  nulli- 
fying influence  upon  its  flight  and  velocity,  far  in 

18s 


1 86    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

excess  of  the  mere  resistance  offered  by  the  air.  In 
other  words,  whereas  the  projectile  launched  from 
aloft  has  the  downward  pull  of  the  earth  or  gravi- 
tational force  in  its  favour,  the  shell  fired  from  the 
ground  in  the  reverse  direction  has  to  contend 
against  this  downward  pull  and  its  decelerating 
eflEect. 

At  the  time  when  aircraft  entered  the  realms  of 
warfare  very  little  was  known  concerning  the  alti- 
tudes to  which  projectiles  could  be  hurled  deliber- 
ately. Certain  conclusive  information  upon  this 
point  was  available  in  connection  with  heavy  howitzer 
fire,  based  on  calculations  of  the  respective  angles  at 
which  the  projectile  rose  into  the  air  and  fell  to  the 
ground,  and  of  the  time  the  missile  took  to  complete 
its  flight  from  the  gun  to  the  objective.  But 
howitzer  fire  against  aircraft  was  a  sheer  impossi- 
bility :  it  was  like  using  a  six-inch  gun  to  kill  a  fly 
on  a  window  pane  at  a  thousand  yards'  range. 

Some  years  ago  certain  experiments  in  aerial 
firing  with  a  rifle  were  undertaken  in  Switzerland. 
The  weapon  was  set  vertically  muzzle  upwards  and 
discharged.  From  the  time  which  elapsed  between 
the  issue  of  the  bullet  from  the  muzzle  until  it  struck 
the  earth  it  was  possible  to  make  certain  deductions, 
from  which  it  was  estimated  that  the  bullet  reached 
an  altitude  of  600  feet  or  so.  But  this  was  merely 
conjecture. 

Consequently  when  artillerists  entered  upon  the 
study  of  fighting  air-craft  with  small  arms  and  light 


THE  ANTI-AIRCRAFT   GUN       187 

guns,  they  were  compelled  to  struggle  in  the  dark  to 
a  very  pronounced  extent,  and  this  darkness  was 
never  satisfactorily  dispelled  until  the  present 
war,  for  the  simple  reason  that  there  were  no  means 
of  getting  conclusive  information.  The  German 
armament  manufacturers  endeavoured  to  solve  the 
problem  by  using  smoking  shells  or  missiles  fitted 
with  what  are  known  as  tracers.  By  following  the 
ascensional  path  of  the  projectiles  as  revealed  by  the 
smoke  it  was  possible  to  draw  certain  conclusions. 
But  these  were  by  no  means  convincing  or  illumin- 
ating, as  so  many  factors  affected  the  issue. 

Despite  the  peculiar  and  complex  difficulties 
associated  with  the  problem  it  was  attacked  some- 
what boldly.  In  this  trying  field  of  artillery 
research  the  prominent  German  armament  manufac- 
turers, Krupp  of  Essen  and  Ehrhardt  of  Diisseldorf, 
played  a  leading  part,  the  result  being  that  before 
the  airship  or  the  aeroplane  was  received  within 
the  military  fold,  the  anti-aircraft  gun  had  been 
brought  into  the  field  of  applied  science.  The 
sudden  levelling-up  serves  to  illustrate  the  enterprise 
of  the  Germans  in  this  respect  as  well  as  their  per- 
spicacity in  connection  with  the  military  value  of 
aircraft. 

Any  gun  we  can  hope  to  employ  against  aircraft 
with  some  degree  of  success  must  fulfil  special  con- 
ditions, for  it  has  to  deal  with  a  difficult  and  elusive 
foe.  Both  the  lighter-than-air  and  the  heavier- 
than-air  craft  possess  distinctive  features  and  vary- 


i88    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

ing  degrees  of  mobility.  Taking  the  first-named,  the 
facility  with  which  it  can  vary  its  altitude  is  a  dis- 
concerting factor,  and  is  perplexing  to  the  most 
skilful  gunner,  inasmuch  as  he  is  called  upon  to 
judge  and  change  the  range  suddenly. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  artilleryman  is  favoured 
in  certain  directions.  The  range  of  utility  of  the 
airship  is  severely  limited.  If  its  avowed  mission 
is  reconnaissance  and  conclusive  information  con- 
cerning the  disposition  of  forces,  artillery  and  so 
forth  is  required,  experience  has  proved  that  such 
work  cannot  be  carried  out  satisfactorily  or  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy  at  a  height  exceeding  5,000 
feet,  and  a  distance  beyond  six  miles.  But  even 
under  these  circumstances  the  climatic  conditions 
must  be  extremely  favourable.  If  the  elements  are 
unpropitious  the  airship  must  venture  nearer  to  its 
objective.  These  data  were  not  difficult  to  collect, 
inasmuch  as  they  were  more  or  less  available  from 
the  results  of  military  observations  with  captive 
balloons,  the  conditions  being  somewhat  similar. 
With  the  ordinary  captive  balloon  it  has  been 
found  that,  in  clear  weather,  a  radius  of  about  3f 
miles  at  the  maximum  elevation  constitutes  its 
range  of  reliable  utility. 

With  the  aeroplane,  however,  the  conditions  are 
very  dissimilar.  In  the  first  place  the  machine, 
owing  to  its  diminutive  size  as  compared  with  the 
airship,  offers  a  small  and  inconspicuous  target. 
Then  there  is  its  high  independent  speed,  which  is 


THE   ANTI-AIRCRAFT   GUN      189 

far  beyond  that  of  the  airship.  Furthermore  its 
mobiUty  is  greater.  It  can  wheel,  turn  sharply  to 
the  right  or  to  the  left,  and  pursue  an  irregular 
undulating  flight  in  the  horizontal  plane,  which 
renders  it  well  nigh  impossible  for  a  gunner  to  pick 
it  up.  The  machine  moves  at  a  higher  relative 
speed  than  that  at  which  the  gun  can  be  trained.  It 
is  the  rapid  and  devious  variation  which  so  baffles  the 
gunner,  who  unless  he  be  highly  skilled  and  patient, 
is  apt  to  commence  to  fire  wildly  after  striving  for 
a  few  moments,  and  in  vain,  to  pick  up  the  range ; 
he  trusts  to  luck  or  depends  upon  blind-shooting, 
which  invariably  results  in  a  waste  of  ammunition. 
A  gun,  to  be  of  tangible  destructive  efficiency 
when  directed  against  aircraft,  especially  those 
depending  upon  the  gas-bag  for  equilibrium,  must 
be  of  special  design.  It  must  be  capable  of  firing 
at  an  angle  only  a  few  degrees  less  than  the  absolute 
vertical,  and  in  order  to  follow  the  rapid  and  in- 
volved movements  of  its  objective,  must  be  so 
mobile  that  it  can  be  trained  through  a  complete 
circle  at  any  angle  of  inclination  less  than  its  maxi- 
mum. At  the  same  time,  if  the  weapon  is  being 
used  in  field  operations  it  must  be  mounted  upon  a 
carriage  of  adequate  mobility  to  enable  it  to  follow 
the  airship,  and  thereby  keep  pace  with  the  latter, 
so  that  the  aerial  craft  may  be  sorely  harassed  if 
not  actually  hit.  The  automobile  is  the  obvious 
vehicle  for  this  duty,  and  it  has  accordingly  been 
extensively  used  in  this  service. 


190    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

The  automobile  and  the  gun  mounted  thereon 
follow  widely  different  lines.  Some  vehicles  are 
designed  especially  for  this  duty,  while  others  are 
improvisations,  and  be  it  noted,  in  passing,  that 
many  of  the  latter  have  proved  more  serviceable 
than  the  former.  Still,  the  first-named  is  to  be 
preferred,  inasmuch  as  necessarily  it  is  designed  to 
meet  the  all-rou.nd  requirements  imposed,  and  con- 
sequently is  better  able  to  stand  up  to  the  intended 
work,  whereas  the  extemporised  vehicle  is  only 
serviceable  under  favourable  conditions. 

The  Krupp  Company  has  evolved  many  designs 
of  anti-aircraft  motor-driven  guns — "  Archibalds  " 
the  British  airmen  term  them  with  emphatic  levity. 
They  are  sturdily-built  vehicles  fitted  with  heavy 
motors,  developing  from  40  to  50  horse-power,  with 
the  chassis  not  widely  dissimilar  from  that  adopted 
for  motor-omnibus  traffic.  Consequently,  they  are 
not  necessarily  condemned  to  the  high-roads,  but 
within  certain  limits  are  able  to  travel  across 
country,  i.e.,  upon  fields  or  other  level  expanses, 
where  the  soil  is  not  unduly  soft. 

But  the  very  character  of  the  problem  rendered 
the  evolution  of  the  vehicle  a  somewhat  perplexing 
matter.  There  were  many  factors  which  had  to 
be  taken  into  consideration,  and  it  was  possible 
to  meet  the  imposed  requirements  only  within  certain 
limits.  In  the  first  place,  the  weight  of  the  gun  itself 
had  to  be  kept  down.  It  was  obviously  useless  to 
overload   the   chassis.     Again,  the   weight    of   the 


MOTOR-MOUNTED   GUNS         191 

projectile  and  its  velocity  had  to  be  borne  in  mind. 
A  high  velocity  was  imperative.  Accordingly,  an 
initial  velocity  varying  from  2,200  to  2,700  feet  per 
second,  according  to  the  calibre  of  the  gun,  was 
determined. 

Moreover,  as  mobility  was  an  indispensable 
condition,  the  gun  had  to  be  so  mounted  that  it 
could  be  fired  from  the  motor-car  even  if  the 
latter  were  travelling  at  high  speed.  This  require- 
ment entailed  another  difficulty.  The  gun  had  to  be 
mounted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  the  gunner 
to  train  it  easily  and  readily  through  the  complete 
circle  and  through  its  complete  range  of  vertical 
inclination.  As  the  result  of  prolonged  experiments 
it  was  ascertained  that  the  most  suitable  arrange- 
ment was  a  pedestal  mounting,  either  within  a 
turret  or  upon  an  open  deck.  To  meet  the  weight  of 
the  gun,  as  well  as  the  strains  and  stresses  incidental 
to  firing,  the  chassis  was  strengthened,  especially 
over  the  rear  axle  near  which  the  mounting  is 
placed. 

The  heaviest  gun  of  this  type  is  the  10*5  centi- 
metre (4 J-inch)  quick-firer,  throwing  a  shell  weighing 
nearly  forty  pounds,  with  an  initial  velocity  of 
2,333  feet  per  second.  This  "  Archibald  "  is  totally 
unprotected.  The  gun  is  mounted  centrally  upon 
the  carriage  over  the  rear  axle,  and  occupies  the 
centre  of  the  deck  between  the  driver's  seat  and 
that  of  the  gun  crew  behind.  The  whole  of  the  deck 
is   clear,   thereby   offering   no   obstruction   to   the 


192    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

gunner  in  training  the  weapon,  while  the  deck 
space  may  be  widened  by  dropping  down  the  side 
wings  of  the  vehicle.  At  the  rear  is  a  seat  to 
accommodate  the  gun  crew,  beneath  which  the 
ammunition  is  stowed.  When  traveUing  and  out 
of  action,  the  gun  lies  horizontally,  the  muzzle 
pointing  from  the  rear  of  the  car. 

To  reduce  the  strains  arising  from  firing,  the  arm 
is  fitted  with  what  is  known  as  the  "  differential 
recoil."  Above  the  breach  is  an  air  recuperator 
and  a  piston,  while  there  is  no  hydraulic  brake  such 
as  is  generally  used.  The  compressor  is  kept  under 
compression  while  the  car  is  travelling  with  the  gun 
out  of  action,  so  that  the  arm  is  available  for  instant 
firing.  This  is  a  departure  from  the  general  practice 
in  connection  with  such  weapons.  When  the  gun 
is  loaded  the  bolt  which  holds  the  compressor  back 
is  withdrawn,  either  by  the  hand  for  manual  firing, 
or  by  the  action  of  the  automatic  closing  of  the 
breech  when  the  arm  is  being  used  as  a  quick-firer. 
In  firing  the  gun  is  thrown  forward  under  the  pressure 
of  the  released  air  which  occurs  at  the  moment  of 
discharge.  The  energy  of  the  recoil  brings  the  gun 
back  and  at  the  same  time  recharges  the  compressed 
air  reservoir. 

The  gun  is  so  mounted  upon  its  pedestal  as  to 
enable  a  maximum  vertical  inclination  of  75  degrees 
to  be  obtained.  The  mounting  system  also  enables 
the  weapon  to  be  trained  in  any  desired  direction 
up  to  the  foregoing  maximum  elevation  throughout 


.^^r*"-  \    \ 


o 


PROTECTED    GUNS  193 

a  complete  circle,  and  it  can  be  handled  with  ease 
and  celerity.  A  smaller  "  Archibald "  is  the  7-5 
centimetre  (3-inch  gun)  throwing  a  14*3  pound 
shell  at  an  initial  velocity  of  about  2,170  feet  per 
second. 

The  turret  anti-aircraft  gun  carried  upon  a 
motor-car  differs  from  the  foregoing  very  consider- 
ably. This  is  a  protected  arm.  The  gun  of  7-1 
centimetres — approximately  275  inches — is  mounted 
in  the  same  manner  upon  the  car-deck  and  over  the 
driving  axle,  but  is  enclosed  within  a  sheet  steel 
turret,  which  is  proof  against  rifle  and  machine-gun 
fire.  This  turret  resembles  the  conning-tower  of 
a  battleship,  and  is  sufficiently  spacious  to  house 
the  whole  of  the  gun  crew,  the  internal  diameter 
being  about  seven  feet.  Access  to  the  turret  is 
obtained  through  a  rear  door.  This  gun  has  a 
maximum  elevation  of  about  75  degrees,  while  its 
operation  and  mechanism  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  unprotected  weapon. 

The  vehicle  itself  is  practically  identical  with  the 
armoured  motor-car,  which  has  played  such  an 
important  part  during  the  present  campaign,  the 
driver  being  protected  by  a  bullet-proof  steel  screen 
similar  in  design  to  the  ordinary  glass  wind-screen 
fitted  to  touring  automobiles.  This  is  carried 
sufficiently  high  to  offer  complete  protection  to  his 
head  when  seated  at  the  wheel,  while  through  a 
small  orifice  in  this  shield  he  is  able  to  obtain  a  clear 
view  of  the  road.    The  engine  and  its  vital  parts  are 

o 


194    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

also  adequately  protected.  The  ammunition  is 
carried  in  a  cupboard-like  recess  forming  part  of  the 
driver's  seat,  encased  in  bullet-proof  steel  sheeting 
with  flap-doors.  This  device  enables  the  shells  to 
be  withdrawn  readily  from  the  side  of  the  car  and 
passed  to  the  crew  within  the  turret.  The  caisson 
is  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  receive  69  shells. 

The  Ehrhardt  airship  fighting  ordnance  is  simi- 
larly adapted  to  motor-car  operations,  one  type 
being  especially  powerful.  The  whole  of  the  vehicle 
is  encased  in  armour-plating  impervious  to  rifle 
and  machine-gun  fire.  The  driver  is  provided  with 
a  small  orifice  through  which  he  is  able  to  obtain  a 
clear  uninterrupted  view  of  the  road  ahead,  while  the 
armouring  over  the  tonneau  is  carried  to  a  sufficient 
height  to  allow  head-room  to  the  gun  crew  when 
standing  at  the  gun.  All  four  wheels  are  of  the  disk 
type  and  fashioned  from  heavy  sheet  steel.  The 
motor  develops  40-50  horse-power  and,  in  one 
type,  in  order  to  mitigate  the  risk  of  breakdown 
or  disablement,  all  four  wheels  are  driven.  The 
gun,  a  small  quick-firer,  is  mounted  on  a  pedestal 
in  a  projecting  conning-tower.  The  mounting  is 
placed  behind  the  driver's  seat,  and  is  trained  and 
operated  from  the  tonneau.  The  maximum  eleva- 
tion is  75  degrees,  and  like  the  gun  carriage  bearing 
the  tube  guide  it  can  be  moved  through  a  complete 
circle,  being  free  to  rotate  in  the  fixed  pivot  jack  to 
enable  this  end  to  be  attained. 

The  foregoing  may  be  said  to  represent  the  most 


GUNS   ON   ARMOURED    CARS     195 

powerful  types  of  mobile  anti-aircraft  weapons  used 
by  the  Austro-German  forces  to-day.  Arms  of 
similar  design,  roughly  speaking,  have  also  been 
introduced  into  the  French  and  Russian  services. 
In  addition  many  semi-armoured  weapons  of  this 
character  are  in  operation,  some  specially  built  for 
the  work,  while  others  have  been  improvised.  In 
the  semi-armoured  motor-car  the  carriage  follows  the 
usual  lines  ;  it  has  an  open  top,  the  armouring 
comprising  the  body  of  the  tonneau  and  the  disk- 
wheels,  which  are  made  of  light  bullet-proof  steel. 
Here  again  the  prevailing  practice  is  to  mount  the 
gun  as  nearly  above  the  rear  axle  as  possible,  and 
to  work  it  from  the  tonneau.  The  maximum 
elevation  is  also  75  degrees,  with  training  throughout 
the  entire  circle. 

Another  type  comprises  a  very  light  machine  gun 
of  rifle  calibre,  and  this  is  intended  for  attachment 
to  an  ordinary  motor  car.  There  is  a  pedestal 
mounting  which  can  be  set  within  the  tonneau, 
while  the  weapon  is  pivoted  in  an  outrigger,  the 
latter  being  free  to  rotate  in  its  pivot  jack.  This 
arrangement  enables  the  arm  to  cover  a  wide  range, 
while  it  also  admits  of  training  through  an  extensive 
angle  of  elevation. 

The  Allied  forces  improvised  travelling  anti-air- 
craft offences  by  mounting  the  latest  types  of  Vickers, 
Hotchkiss,  and  other  machine  guns  in  armoured 
motor  cars.  Some  of  these  have  the  domed  turret 
form,  with  the  gun  projecting  through  the  roof, 

o  2 


196    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

while  others  are  protected  against  hostile  attack  from 
the  side  only,  the  carriage  being  panelled  with 
bullet-proof  steel  sheeting.  While  such  weapons  are 
useful,  inasmuch  as  they  can  maintain  a  hot  fire 
ranging  up  to  750  shots  per  minute,  they  are  not  to 
be  compared  with  the  "  Archibalds,"  which  are  able 
to  throw  heavy  shrapnel  and  incendiary  shells,  and 
have  a  vertical  range  of  about  6,000  to  8,000  feet. 

The  improvised  motor-gun  has  not  proved  a 
complete  success,  except  in  those  instances  when 
the  hostile  aircraft  has  ventured  to  approach  some- 
what closely  to  the  ground.  The  more  formidable 
weapons  cannot  be  mounted  upon  ordinary  vehicles, 
inasmuch  as  the  increase  in  weight,  which  is  appre- 
ciable, impairs  the  efficiency  of  the  vehicle,  and  at 
the  same  time  enhances  the  possibility  of  breakdown 
at  a  critical  moment.  For  such  arms  a  special  and 
substantial  chassis  is  imperative,  while  the  motive 
power  and  gearing  must  be  adapted  to  the  circum- 
stances. 

Motor-mounted  anti-aircraft  weapons,  however, 
have  not  proved  an  unqualified  success.  The  fact 
that  the  vehicles  are  condemned  to  the  high  roads, 
or  at  least  to  comparatively  smooth  and  level 
ground,  constitutes  a  severe  handicap.  Again, 
when  travelling  at  high  speed,  and  this  is  essential 
when  pursuing  a  fast  aeroplane,  the  accurate  laying 
of  the  weapon  is  extremely  difficult,  owing  to  the 
oscillation  of  the  vehicle  itself,  especially  if  the  road 
surface  is  in  a  bad  condition.    The  sighting  arrange- 


MOTOR-MOUNTED    GUNS        197 

merits  are  of  a  wonderfully  complete  character,  as 
described  elsewhere,  but  the  irregular  rolling  move- 
ment arising  from  high  speed  is  a  nullifying  quantity. 
It  is  tolerably  easy  for  the  aircraft,  especially  an 
aeroplane,  to  evade  successful  pursuit,  either  by 
rising  to  an  elevation  beyond  the  range  of  the  gun, 
or  by  carrying  out  baffling  evolutions  such  as 
irregular  undulating  flight,  wheeling,  and  climbing. 
According  to  the  reports  of  the  British  and  French 
airmen  the  "  Archibald  "  has  failed  to  establish  the 
glowing  reputation  which  was  anticipated,  for  the 
simple  reason  that,  unless  it  has  a  clear  straight  road 
and  can  maintain  its  high  speed,  it  can  easily  be 
out-distanced  by  the  fleet  human  bird. 

The  motor-car  suffers  from  another  serious 
disability.  It  cannot  manoeuvre  with  sufficient 
celerity.  For  instance,  if  it  is  necessary  to  turn 
round  in  a  narrow  lane,  valuable  time  is  lost  in  the 
process,  and  this  the  airman  turns  to  account.  In 
hilly  country  it  is  at  a  still  greater  disadvantage, 
the  inclines,  gradients,  and  sinuosities  of  the  roads 
restricting  its  effectiveness  very  pronouncedly.  It 
must  also  be  remembered  that,  relatively  speaking, 
the  "  Archibald  "  offers  a  better  target  to  the  airman 
than  the  aeroplane  offers  to  the  man  behind  the  anti- 
aircraft gun  on  the  motor  below.  A  few  well-placed 
bombs  are  sufficient  to  induce  the  pursuers  to  cease 
their  activities.  Even  if  the  missiles  fail  to  strike 
the  motor-car  itself  they  can  wreak  disaster  in- 
directly by  rendering  the  road  impassable  or  danger- 


198    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

ous  to  negotiate  at  high  speed.  On  the  whole 
therefore,  the  "  Archibald  "  is  a  greatly  exaggerated 
weapon  of  offence  against  aircraft,  and,  so  far  as  is 
known,  has  failed  to  fulfil  expectations.  In  fact, 
the  Germans  have  practically  abandoned  the  idea 
of  using  it  in  the  manner  of  a  pursuing  arm ;  they 
work  the  weapon  as  a  fixture,  depending  upon  the 
car  merely  as  a  means  of  moving  it  from  point  to 
point.  Thus,  in  reality,  it  has  been  converted  into 
a  light  field-piece,  and  may  almost  be  included 
in  the  category  of  fixed  weapons  for  combating 
aerial  operations. 


CHAPTER  XV 

ANTI-AIRCRAFT  GUNS.       IMMOBILE  WEAPONS 

The  immobile  anti-aircraft  gun,  as  distinct  from 
that  attached  to  a  traveUing  carriage  such  as  a 
motor-car,  may  be  subdivided  into  two  classes. 
The  one  is  the  fixed  arm  which  cannot  be  moved 
readily,  mounted  upon  a  permanent  emplacement ; 
the  other  is  the  field-piece  which,  while  fired  from  a 
stationary  position,  may  be  moved  from  point  to 
point  upon  a  suitable  carriage.  The  distinction  has 
its  parallel  in  ordinary  artillery,  the  first-named 
weapon  coinciding  with  the  heavy  siege  gun,  which  is 
built  into  and  forms  part  and  parcel  of  the  defensive 
or  offensive  scheme,  while  the  second  is  analogous 
to  the  field  artillery,  which  may  be  wheeled  from 
position  to  position. 

In  this  phase  of  artillery  the  Germans  led  the  way, 

for   the   simple   reason   that   they   recognised   the 

military  value  of  aerial  navigation  years  in  advance 

of  their  contemporaries.    Again,  in  this  field  the 

Krupp  organisation  has  played  a  prominent  part. 

It  embarked  upon  actual  construction  of  weapons 

199 


200    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

while  its  rivals  in  other  countries  were  content  to 
prepare  their  drawings,  which  were  filed  against 
"  The  Day."  But  it  must  not  be  thought  that 
because  the  German  manufacturers  of  armaments 
were  ahead  of  their  contemporaries  they  domin- 
ated the  situation.  Far  from  it.  Their  com- 
petitors in  the  market  of  destruction  were  every 
whit  as  keen,  as  ingenious,  and  as  enterprising. 
Kruppism  saw  a  commercial  opportunity  to  profit 
from  advertisement  and  seized  it :  its  rivals  were 
content  to  work  in  secret  upon  paper,  to  keep  pace 
with  the  trend  of  thought,  and  to  perfect  their 
organisations  so  as  to  be  ready  for  the  crisis  when  it 
developed. 

The  first  Krupp  anti-aircraft  field-piece  was  a 
6*5  centimetre  (2*9-16  inch)  arm.  It  possessed 
many  interesting  features,  the  most  salient  of  which 
was  the  design  of  the  axle  of  the  carriage.  The 
rigid  axle  for  the  two  wheels  was  replaced  by  an  axle 
made  in  two  sections,  and  joined  together  in  the  form 
of  a  universal  coupling,  so  that  each  wheel  virtually 
possessed  its  own  axle,  or  rather  half-axle.  This 
was  connected  with  the  cradle  of  the  gun  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  wheels  were  laterally  pivoted 
thereon. 

The  result  is  that  each  axle  can  be  turned  forward 
together  with  its  wheel,  and  thus  the  wheels  have 
their  rims  brought  into  line  to  form  an  arc  of  a 
circle,  of  which  the  rear  end  of  the  spade  of  the  gun 
carriage   constitutes   the   centre.     This   acts   as   a 


KRUPP   ANTI-AIRCRAFT   GUN    201 

pivot,  about  which  the  gun  can  be  turned,  the  pair 
of  wheels  forming  the  runners  for  the  achievement 
of  this  movement.  The  setting  of  the  weapon 
in  the  firing  position  or  its  reversion  to  the  travelUng 
position  can  be  easily  and  speedily  effected  merely 
by  the  rotation  of  a  handwheel  and  gearing. 

With  this  gun  a  maximum  elevation  of  60  degrees 
is  possible,  owing  to  the  trunnions  being  carried  well 
behind  the  breech  in  combination  with  the  system 
of  long  steady  recoil.  The  balancing  spring  which 
encloses  the  elevating  screw  is  contained  in  a 
protected  box.  The  recoil  brake,  together  with 
the  spring  recuperator,  follows  the  usual  Krupp 
practice  in  connection  with  ordinary  field  pieces,  as 
does  also  the  automatic  breech-closing  and  firing 
mechanism.  In  fact  there  is  no  pronounced  devia- 
tion from  the  prevailing  Krupp  system,  and  only 
such  modifications  as  are  necessary  to  adapt  the  arm 
to  its  special  duty.  When  the  gun  is  elevated  to  high 
angles  the  shell,  after  insertion  in  the  breech,  is 
prevented  from  slipping  out  by  means  of  a  special 
device,  so  that  the  proper  and  automatic  closing  of 
the  breech  is  not  impaired  in  any  way. 

In  such  an  arm  as  this,  which  is  designed  essenti- 
ally for  high-angle  firing,  the  sighting  and  training 
facilities  require  to  be  carried  out  upon  special  lines, 
inasmuch  as  the  objective  is  necessarily  at  a  con- 
siderable altitude  above  the  horizon  of  the  gun. 
In  other  words,  in  firing  at  a  high  inclination, 
distance  between  the  gun  and  the  target  cannot 


202    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

be  utilised  directly  for  the  back  sight.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  essential  that  in  proportion  as  the 
angle  from  the  horizontal  increases,  the  back  sight 
should  be  lowered  progressively  in  a  manner  corres- 
ponding to  the  distance. 

To  assist  the  range-finder  in  his  task  of  sighting 
it  is  necessary  that  he  should  be  provided  with 
firing  tables  set  out  in  a  convenient  form,  which, 
in  conjunction  with  the  telemeter,  serve  to  facilitate 
training  for  each  successive  round.  In  this  way 
it  is  possible  to  pick  up  the  range  quickly  and  to 
keep  the  objective  in  the  line  of  fire  until  it  either 
has  been  put  hors  de  combat,  or  has  succeeded  in 
retiring  beyond  the  range  of  the  gun. 

The  sighting  arrangements  of  these  Krupp  anti- 
aircraft guns  are  carried  out  upon  these  lines. 
Beneath  the  barrel  of  the  back-sight  is  an  observing 
glass  with  an  eye-piece  for  the  artillerist,  while 
above  and  behind  the  observing  glass  is  another 
eye-piece,  to  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  manipu- 
lation of  the  back-sight.  The  eye-piece  of  the 
observation  glass  is  so  made  that  it  can  be  turned 
through  a  vertical  plane  in  proportion  as  the  angle 
of  fire  increases  in  relation  to  the  horizontal.  The 
determination  of  the  distance  from  the  objective 
and  from  the  corresponding  back-sight  as  well  as 
the  observation  of  the  altitude  is  carried  out  with 
the  aid  of  the  telemeter.  This  again  carries  an 
observation  glass  fitted  with  an  eye-piece  which 
can  be  turned  in  the  vertical  plane  in  the  same 


FRENCH  ANTI-AIRCRAFT  GUN  203 

manner  as  that  of  the  fore-sight.  By  means  of  this 
ingenious  sighting  device  it  is  possible  to  ascertain 
the  range  and  angle  of  fire  very  easily  and  speedily. 

The  weight  of  the  special  Krupp  anti-aircraft 
field-piece,  exclusive  of  the  protecting  shield,  is 
approximately  identical  with  that  of  the  ordinary 
light  artillery  field-piece.  It  throws  a  shell  weighing 
S'8  pounds  with  an  initial  velocity  of  about  2,066 
feet  per  second. 

Although  the  German  armament  manufacturers 
were  among  the  first  to  enter  the  field  with  an  anti- 
aircraft gun  of  this  character  they  were  speedily 
followed  by  the  French,  who  devised  a  superior 
weapon.  In  fact,  the  latter  represented  such  a 
decisive  advance  that  the  German  artillerists  did 
not  hesitate  to  appropriate  their  improvements 
in  sundry  essential  details,  and  to  incorporate 
them  with  their  own  weapons.  This  applies  es- 
pecially to  the  differential  recoil  system  which  is 
utilised  in  the  small  anti-aircraft  guns  now  mounted 
upon  the  roofs  of  high  buildings  of  cities  throughout 
Germany  for  the  express  purpose  of  repelling 
aerial  attack. 

The  French  system  is  admitted  by  the  leading 
artillery  technicians  of  the  world  to  be  the  finest 
which  has  ever  been  designed,  its  remarkble  success 
being  due  to  the  fact  that  it  takes  advantage  of 
the  laws  of  Nature.  In  this  system  the  gun  is  drawn 
back  upon  its  cradle  preparatory  to  firing.  In 
some  instances  the  barrel  is  compressed  against  a 


204    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

spring,  but  in  the  more  modern  guns  it  is  forced  to 
rest  against  a  cushion  of  compressed  air  contained 
within  a  cyUnder.  When  first  bringing  the  gun 
into  action,  the  barrel  is  brought  into  the  prehm- 
inary  position  by  manually  compressing  the  air 
or  spring  by  means  of  a  lever.  Thereafter  the  gun 
works  automatically.  When  the  gun  is  fired  the 
barrel  is  released  and  it  flies  forward.  At  a  critical 
point  in  its  forward  travel  the  charge  is  fired  and  the 
projectile  speeds  on  its  way.  The  kick  or  recoil 
serves  to  arrest  the  forward  movement  of  the  barrel, 
and  finally  drives  it  back  again  against  the  strong 
spring  or  cushion  of  compressed  air  within  the 
cylinder  to  its  normal  position,  when  it  is  ready  for 
the  introduction  of  the  next  shell. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  this  system  is  that 
the  projectile  is  given  a  higher  initial  velocity 
than  is  possible  with  the  barrel  held  rigid  at  the 
moment  of  discharge,  because  the  shell  is  already 
travelling  at  the  moment  of  firing. 

The  fixed  anti-aircraft  guns  such  as  are  stationed 
upon  eminences  and  buildings  are  of  the  quick- 
firing  type,  the  object  being  to  hurl  a  steady,  con- 
tinuous stream  of  missiles  upon  the  swiftly  moving 
aeroplane.  Some  of  the  weapons  throw  a  one-pound 
shell  and  are  closely  similar  to  the  pom-pom  which 
proved  so  effective  during  the  South  African  war. 
Machine  guns  also  have  been  extensively  adopted 
for  this  duty  by  all  the  combatants,  their  range 
of  approximately  2,000  yards  and  rapidity  of  fire 


TYPES   OF   PROJECTILES        205 

being  distinctly  valuable  when  hostile  aircraft 
descend  to  an  altitude  which  brings  them  within 
the  range  of  the  weapon. 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  connection  with  this 
phase  of  artillery,  however,  is  not  so  much  the 
evolution  of  a  serviceable  and  efficient  type  of 
gun,  as  the  determination  of  the  type  of  projectile 
which  is  likely  to  be  most  effective.  While  shrapnel 
is  employed  somewhat  extensively  it  has  not  proved 
completely  satisfactory.  It  is  difficult  to  set  the 
timing  fuse  even  after  the  range  has  been  found 
approximately,  which  in  itself  is  no  easy  matter 
when  the  aircraft  is  moving  rapidly  and  irregularly, 
but  reliance  is  placed  thereon  in  the  hope  that  the 
machine  may  happen  to  be  within  the  cone  of 
dispersion  when  the  shell  bursts,  and  that  one 
or  more  of  the  pieces  of  projectile  and  bullets  may 
chance  to  penetrate  either  the  body  of  the  airman 
or  a  vital  part  of  the  mechanism. 

It  is  this  uncertainty  which  has  led  to  a  preference 
for  a  direct  missile  such  as  the  bullet  discharged  from 
a  machine  gun.  A  stream  of  missiles,  even  of  rifle- 
calibre,  maintained  at  the  rate  of  some  400  shots  per 
minute  is  certain  to  be  more  effective,  provided 
range  and  aim  are  correct,  than  shrapnel.  But  the 
ordinary  rifle-bullet,  unless  the  objective  is  within 
very  close  range,  is  not  likely  to  cause  much  harm, 
at  least  not  to  the  mechanism  of  the  aerial  vessel. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  greater  attention  is  being 
devoted,   especially  by   the   French   artillerists,  to 


2o6    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

the  Chevalier  anti-aircraft  gun,  a  weapon  perfected 
by  a  Swiss  technician  resident  in  Great  Britain. 
It  projects  a  formidable  missile  which  in  fact  is 
an  armour-piercing  bullet  J-  to  f-inch  in  diameter. 
It  is  designed  for  use  with  an  automatic  machine- 
gun,  which  the  inventor  has  devised  more  or  less 
upon  the  well-known  French  system.  The  bullet 
has  a  high  velocity — about  2,500  feet  per  second — 
and  a  maximum  range  of  6,000  to  8,000  feet  at  the 
maximum  elevation.  Should  such  a  missile  strike 
the  motor  or  other  mechanism  of  the  vessel  it  would 
wreak  widespread  havoc,  and  probably  cause  the 
machine  to  come  to  earth.  This  arm  has  been 
designed  for  the  express  purpose  of  disabhng  the 
aeroplane,  and  not  for  the  subjugation  of  the  airmail, 
which  is  a  minor  consideration,  inasmuch  as  he  is 
condemned  to  a  descent  when  his  craft  receives  a 
mortal  wound. 

Attempts  have  been  and  still  are  being  made  to 
adapt  an  explosive  projectile  to  this  gun,  but  so  far 
the  measure  of  success  achieved  has  not  proved  very 
promising.  There  are  immense  difficulties  connected 
with  the  design  of  an  explosive  shell  of  this  class, 
charged  with  a  high  explosive,  especially  in  con- 
nection with  the  timing.  So  far  as  dependence  upon 
percussive  detonation  is  concerned  there  is  prac- 
tically no  difficulty.  Should  such  a  missile  strike, 
say,  the  motor  of  an  aeroplane,  or  even  the  hull  of 
the  craft  itself,  the  latter  would  be  practically 
destroyed.    But  all  things  considered,  it  is  concluded 


»      »     J 


The  latest  Krupp  Anti-aircrafi'  Gun,  showing  novel 
DISPOSITION  OF  Wheels. 


{Alfieri 

French  Soldiers  with  Machine  Gun  Firing  upon 


Hostile  Aeroplanes. 


INCENDIARY   SHELLS  207 

that  more  successful  results  are  likely  to  be  achieved 
by  the  armour-piercing  bullet  striking  the  mechanism 
than  by  an  explosive  projectile. 

The  Krupp  company  fully  realised  the  difficulties 
pertaining  to  the  projectile  problem  in  attacks  upon 
aerial  craft.  So  far  as  dirigibles  are  concerned 
shrapnel  is  practically  useless,  inasmuch  as  even 
should  the  bag  be  riddled  by  the  flying  fragments, 
little  effective  damage  would  be  wrought — the  craft 
would  be  able  to  regain  its  haven.  Accordingly 
efforts  were  concentrated  upon  the  perfection  of  two 
new  types  of  projectiles,  both  of  which  were  directed 
more  particularly  against  the  dirigible.  The  one 
is  the  incendiary  shell — obus  fumigene — while  the 
other  is  a  shell,  the  contents  of  which,  upon  coming 
into  contact  with  the  gas  contained  within  the  gas- 
bag, set  up  certain  chemical  reactions  which  pre- 
cipitate an  explosion  and  fire. 

The  incendiary  shells  are  charged  with  a  certain 
compound  which  is  ignited  by  means  of  a  fuse 
during  its  flight.  This  fuse  arrangement  coincides 
very  closely  with  that  attached  to  ordinary  shrapnel, 
inasmuch  as  the  timing  may  be  set  to  induce  ignition 
at  different  periods,  such  as  either  at  the  moment 
it  leaves  the  gun,  before,  or  when  it  strikes  the 
envelope  of  the  dirigible.  The  shell  is  fitted  with  a 
"  tracer,"  that  is  to  say,  upon  becoming  ignited  it 
leaves  a  trail  of  smoke,  corresponding  with  the 
trail  of  a  rocket,  so  that  its  passage  through  the 
air    may    be    followed    with    facility.     This    shell, 


2o8    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

however,  was  designed  to  fulfil  a  dual  purpose. 
Not  only  will  it  fire  the  gaseous  contents  of  the  bag 
of  the  dirigible,  but  it  has  an  explosive  effect  upon 
striking  an  incombustible  portion  of  the  aircraft, 
such  as  the  machinery,  propellers  or  car,  when  it 
will  cause  sufficient  damage  to  throw  the  craft  out  of 
action. 

The  elaborate  trials  which  were  carried  out  with 
the  obus  fumigene  certainly  were  spectacular  so  far 
as  they  went.  Two  small  spherical  balloons,  lo 
feet  in  diameter,  and  attached  to  i,ooo  feet  of  cable, 
were  sent  aloft.  The  anti-aircraft  guns  themselves 
were  placed  about  5,100  feet  distant.  Owing  to  the 
inclement  weather  the  balloons  were  unable  to  attain 
a  height  of  more  than  200  feet  in  a  direct  vertical 
line  above  the  ground.  The  guns  were  trained 
and  fired,  but  the  one  balloon  was  not  hit  until  the 
second  round,  while  the  third  escaped  injury  until 
the  fifth  round.  When  struck  they  collapsed 
instantly.  Though  the  test  was  not  particularly 
conclusive,  and  afforded  no  reliable  data,  one  point 
was  ascertained — the  trail  of  smoke  emitted  by  the 
shell  enabled  its  trajectory  to  be  followed  with 
ease.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  these  trials,  which 
were  the  most  successful  recorded,  quick-firing  tests 
in  the  horizontal  plane  were  carried  out.  The  best 
performance  in  this  instance  was  the  discharge  of 
five  rounds  in  eight  seconds.  In  this  instance  the 
paths  of  the  projectiles  were  simple  and  easy  to 
follow,  the  flight  of  the  shell  being  observed  until 


AERIAL   TORPEDOES  209 

it  fell  some  18,670  feet  away.  But  the  Krupp  firm 
have  found  that  trials  upon  the  testing  ground  with 
a  captive  balloon  differ  very  materially  from  stern 
tests  in  the  field  of  actual  warfare.  Practically 
nothing  has  been  heard  of  the  two  projectiles  during 
this  war,  as  they  have  proved  an  absolute  failure. 

Some  months  ago  the  world  was  startled  by  the 
announcement  that  the  leading  German  armament 
firm  had  acquired  the  whole  of  the  interest  in  an 
aerial  torpedo  which  had  been  evolved  by  the 
Swedish  artillerist,  Gustave  Unge,  and  it  was 
predicted  that  in  the  next  war  widespread  havoc 
would  be  wrought  therewith.  Remarkable  claims 
were  advanced  for  this  projectile,  the  foremost 
being  that  it  would  travel  for  a  considerable  distance 
through  the  air  and  alight  upon  the  objective  with 
infallible  accuracy.  The  torpedo  in  question  was 
subjected  to  exacting  tests  in  Great  Britain,  which 
failed  to  substantiate  all  the  claims  which  were 
advanced,  and  it  is  significant  to  observe  that 
little  has  been  heard  of  it  during  the  present  conflict. 
It  is  urged  in  certain  technical  quarters,  however, 
that  the  aerial  torpedo  will  prove  to  be  the  most 
successful  projectile  that  can  be  used  against 
aircraft.  I  shall  deal  with  this  question  in  a  later 
chapter. 

During  the  early  days  of  the  war  anti-aircraft 
artillery  appeared  to  be  a  much  overrated  arm. 
The  successes  placed  to  its  credit  were  insignificant. 
This  was  due  to  the  artillerymen  being  unfamiliar 

p 


2IO    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

with  the  new  axm,  and  the  conditions  which  prevail 
when  firing  into  space.  Since  actual  practice  became 
possible  great  advances  in  marksmanship  have  been 
recorded,  and  the  accuracy  of  such  fire  to-day  is 
striking.  Fortunately  the  airman  possesses  the 
advantage.  He  can  manoeuvre  beyond  the  range 
of  the  hostile  weapons.  At  the  moment  10,000  feet 
represents  the  extreme  altitude  to  which  projectiles 
can  be  hurled  from  the  arms  of  this  character 
which  are  now  in  use,  and  they  lack  destructiveness 
at  that  range,  for  their  velocity  is  virtually  expended. 

Picking  up  the  range  is  still  as  difficult  as  ever. 
The  practice  followed  by  the  Germans  serves  to 
indicate  the  Teuton  thoroughness  of  method  in 
attacking  such  problems  even  if  success  does  not 
ensue.  The  favourite  German  principle  of  disposing 
anti-aircraft  artillery  is  to  divide  the  territory  to 
be  protected  into  equilateral  triangles,  the  sides  of 
which  have  a  length  of  about  six  miles  or  less, 
according  to  the  maximum  effective  range  of  the 
pieces  at  an  elevation  of  23 J  degrees. 

The  guns  are  disposed  at  the  corners  of  the 
triangles  as  indicated  in  Figs.  13-14.  Taking  the  one 
triangle  as  an  example,  the  method  of  picking  up  the 
range  may  be  explained  as  follows.  The  several  guns 
at  the  comers  of  the  triangle,  each  of  which  can  be 
trained  through  the  360  degrees  in  the  horizontal 
plane,  are  in  telephonic  touch  with  an  observer  0 
stationed  some  distance  away.  The  airman  A 
enters    the    area    of    the    triangle.    The    observer 


PICKING   UP  THE   RANGE      211 

takes  the  range  and  communicates  with  the  gunner 
B,  who  fires  his  weapon.  The  shell  bursts  at  i 
emitting  a  red  flame  and  smoke.  The  observer  notes 
the  altitude  and  relative  position  of  the  explosion 
in  regard  to  the  aircraft,  while  gunner  B  himself 
observes  whether  the  shell  has  burst  to  the  right 


Fig.  13. — The   German   Method   of   Picking   up  the 
Range  with  Anti-aircraft  Gun-fire.    (Plan  View.) 


or  to  the  left  of  the  objective  and  corrects  accord- 
ingly. The  observer  commands  C  to  fire,  and  another 
shell  is  launched  which  emits  a  yellow  flame  and 
smoke.  It  bursts  at  2  according  to  the  observer, 
while  gunner  C  also  notes  whether  it  is  to  the  right 
or  to  the  left  of  the  target  and  corrects  accordingly. 
Now  gunner  D  receives  the  command  to  fire  and  the 

P  2 


212    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

shell  which  explodes  at  3  throws  off  a  white  flame 
and  smoke.     Gunner  D  likewise  observes  whether 


-I 


Fig.   14. — The   German  Method  of  Picking   up  the 
Range  with  Anti-aircraft  Guns.     (Elevation.) 

there  is  any  deviation  to  right  or  left  of  the  target 
and  corrects  in  a  similar  manner.     From  the  sum 


TRIANGULATED    TERRITORY    213 

of  the  three  rounds  the  observer  corrects  the  altitude, 
completes  his  calculations,  and  communicates  his 
instructions  for  correction  to  the  three  gunners, 
who  now  merely  train  their  weapons  for  altitude. 
The  objective  is  to  induce  the  shells  hurled  from 
the  three  comers  of  the  triangle  to  burst  at  a  common 
point  4,  which  is  considered  to  be  the  most  critical 
spot  for  the  aviator.  The  fire  is  then  practically 
concentrated  from  the  three  weapons  upon  the  apex 
of  a  triangular  cone  which  is  held  to  bring  the 
machine  within  the  danger  zone. 

This  method  of  finding  the  range  is  carried  out 
quickly — two  or  three  seconds  being  occupied  in 
the  task.  In  the  early  days  of  the  war  the  German 
anti-aircraft  artillerymen  proved  sadly  deficient 
in  this  work,  but  practice  improved  their  fire  to 
a  marvellous  degree,  with  the  result  that  at  the 
moment  it  is  dangerous  for  an  aviator  to  essay 
his  task  within  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet,  which  is 
the  range  of  the  average  anti-aircraft  gun. 

The  country  occupied  by  a  belligerent  is  divided 
up  in  this  manner  into  a  series  of  triangles.  For 
instance,  a  machine  entering  hostile  territory  from  the 
east,  enters  the  triangle  A-B-C  (Fig.  15),  and  conse- 
quently comes  within  the  range  of  the  guns  posted 
3^  ^he  corners  of  the  triangle.  Directly  he  crosses 
the  line  jB-C  and  enters  the  adjacent  triangle  he  passes 
beyond  the  range  of  gun  A  but  comes  within  the 
range  of  the  gun  posted  at  D,  and  while  within  the 
triangular  area  is  under  fire  from  the  guns  B-C-D. 


214    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

He  turns  and  crosses  the  line  A-C,  but  in  so  doing 
enters  another  triangle  A-C-E,  and  comes  within 
range  of  the  gun  posted  at  E. 

The  accompanying  diagram,  Fig.  15,  represents 
an  area  of  country  divided  up  into  such  triangles 
and  the  position  of  the  guns,  while  the  circles 
round  the  latter  indicate  the  training  arc  of  the 
weapons,  each  of  which  is  a  complete  circle,  in  the 
horizontal  plane.  The  dotted  line  represents  the 
aviator's  line  of  flight,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  no 
matter  how  he  twists  and  turns  he  is  always  within 
the  danger  zone  while  flying  over  hostile  territory. 
The  moment  he  outdistances  one  gun  he  comes 
within  range  of  another. 

The  safety  of  the  aviator  under  these  circumstances 
depends  upon  his  maintaining  an  altitude  exceeding 
the  range  of  the  guns  below,  the  most  powerful  of 
which  have  a  range  of  8,000  to  10,000  feet,  or  on 
speed  combined  with  rapid  twisting  and  turning, 
or  erratic  undulating  flight,  rendering  it  extremely 
diflicult  for  the  gun-layer  to  follow  his  path  with 
suflicient  celerity  to  ensure  accurate  firing. 

At  altitudes  ranging  between  4,000  and  6,000  feet 
the  aeroplane  comes  within  the  range  of  rifle  and 
machine-gun  firing.  The  former,  however,  unless  dis- 
charged in  volleys  with  the  shots  covering  a  wide  a^^^g^ 
is  not  particularly  dangerous,  inasmuch  as  the  odds 
are  overwhelmingly  against  the  rifleman.  He  is  not 
accustomed  to  following  and  firing  upon  a  rapidly 
moving  objective,  the  result  being  that  ninety-nine 


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215 


2i6    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

times  out  of  a  hundred  he  fails  to  register  a  hit. 
On  the  other  hand  the  advantage  accruing  from 
machine-gun  fire  is,  that  o^ving  to  the  continuous 
stream  of  bullets  projected,  there  is  a  greater  pos- 
sibility of  the  gun  being  trained  upon  the  objective 
and  putting  it  hors  de  combat. 

But,  taking  all  things  into  consideration,  and 
notwithstanding  the  achievements  of  the  artillerist, 
the  advantages  are  overwhelmingly  on  the  side  of 
the  aviator.  When  one  reflects  upon  the  total  sum 
of  aircraft  which  have  been  brought  to  earth  during 
the  present  campaign,  it  will  be  realised  that  the 
number  of  prizes  is  insignificant  in  comparison  with 
the  quantity  of  ammunition  expended. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

MINING  THE  AIR 

While  the  anti-aircraft  gun  represents  the  only 
force  which  has  been  brought  to  the  practical  stage 
for  repelling  aerial  attack,  and  incidentally  is  the 
sole  offensive  weapon  which  has  established  its 
effectiveness,  many  other  schemes  have  been  devised 
and  suggested  to  consummate  these  ends.  While 
some  of  these  schemes  are  wildly  fantastic,  others  are 
feasible  within  certain  Hmitations,  as  for  instance 
when  directed  against  dirigibles. 

It  has  been  argued  that  the  atmosphere  is  akin 
to  the  salt  seas ;  that  an  aerial  vessel  in  its  par- 
ticular element  is  confronted  with  dangers  identical 
with  those  prevailing  among  the  waters  of  the  earth. 
But  such  an  analogy  is  fallacious  :  there  is  no  more 
similarity  between  the  air  and  the  ocean  than  there 
is  between  an  airship  and  a  man-of-war.  The 
waters  of  the  earth  conceal  from  sight  innumerable 
obstructions,  such  as  rocks,  shoals,  sandbanks, 
and  other  dangers  which  cannot  by  any  means  be 
readily  detected. 

But  no  such  impediments  are  encountered  in  the 

ai7 


2i8    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

ether.  The  craft  of  the  air  is  virtually  a  free  agent 
in  the  three  dimensions.  It  can  go  whither  it  will 
without  let  or  hindrance  so  long  as  the  mechanical 
agencies  of  man  are  able  to  cope  with  the  influences 
of  Nature.  It  can  ascend  to  a  height  which  is  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  depth  to  which  the  sub- 
marine can  descend  in  safety.  It  is  a  matter  of 
current  knowledge  that  a  submarine  cannot  sink 
to  a  depth  of  more  than  250  feet :  an  aerial  vessel 
is  able  to  ascend  to  5,000,  8,000,  or  even  10,000  feet 
above  the  earth,  and  the  higher  the  altitude  it 
attains  the  greater  is  its  degree  of  safety.  The 
limit  of  ascension  is  governed  merely  by  the  physical 
capacities  of  those  who  are  responsible  for  the  aerial 
vessel's  movement. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  defensive  measures 
which  are  practised  in  the  waters  of  the  earth  are 
inapplicable  to  the  atmosphere.  Movement  by,  or 
in,  water  is  governed  by  the  depth  of  channels,  and 
these  may  be  rendered  impassable  or  dangerous 
to  negotiate  by  the  planting  of  mines.  A  passing 
ship  or  submarine  may  circumvent  these  explosive 
obstructions,  but  such  a  successful  manoeuvre  is 
generally  a  matter  of  good  luck.  So  far  as  sub- 
marines are  concerned  the  fact  must  not  be  over- 
looked that  movements  in  the  sea  are  carried  out 
under  blind  conditions  :  the  navigator  is  unable  to 
see  where  he  is  going  ;  the  optic  faculty  is  rendered 
nugatory.  Contrast  the  disability  of  the  submarine 
with  the  privileges  of  its  consort  in  the  air.     The 


MINING   THE   AIR  219 

latter  is  able  to  profit  from  vision.  The  aerial 
navigator  is  able  to  see  every  inch  of  his  way,  at 
least  during  daylight.  When  darkness  falls  he  is 
condemned  to  the  same  helplessness  as  his  confrere 
in  the  waters  below. 

A  well-known  British  authority  upon  aviation 
suggested  that  advantage  should  be  taken  of  this 
disability,  and  that  the  air  should  be  mined  during 
periods  of  darkness  and  fog  to  secure  protection 
against  aerial  invasion.  At  first  sight  the  proposal 
appears  to  be  absolutely  grotesque,  but  a  little 
reflection  will  suffice  to  demonstrate  its  possibilities 
when  the  area  to  be  defended  is  comparatively 
limited.  The  suggestion  merely  proposes  to  profit 
from  one  defect  of  the  dirigible.  The  latter,  when 
bent  upon  a  daring  expedition,  naturally  prefers  to 
make  a  bee-line  towards  its  objective  :  fuel  con- 
siderations as  a  matter  of  fact  compel  it  to  do  so. 
Consequently  it  is  possible,  within  certain  limits, 
to  anticipate  the  route  which  an  invading  craft 
will  follow  :  the  course  is  practically  as  obvious  as  if 
the  vessel  were  condemned  to  a  narrow  lane  marked 
out  by  sign-posts.  Moreover,  if  approaching  under 
cover  of  night  or  during  thick  weather,  it  will 
metaphorically  "  hug  the  ground.''  To  attempt  to 
complete  its  task  at  a  great  height  is  to  court  failure, 
as  the  range  of  vision  is  necessarily  so  limited. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  mining  of  the  air 
could  be  carried  out  upon  the  obvious  approaches 
to  a  threatened  area.     The  mines,  comprising  large 


220    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

charges  of  high-explosive  and  combustible  material, 
would  be  attached  to  small  captive  balloons  similar 
to  the  "  sounding  balloons  "  which  are  so  much 
used  by  meteorologists  in  operations  for  sounding 
the  upper  strata  of  the  atmosphere.  These  pilot 
balloons  would  be  captive,  their  thin  wires  being 
wound  upon  winches  planted  at  close  intervals 
along  the  coast-line.  The  balloon-mines  themselves 
would  be  sent  to  varying  heights,  ranging  from 
1,000  to  5,000  feet,  and  with  several  attached  to 
each  cable,  the  disposition  of  the  mines  in  the  air 
in  such  an  irregular  manner  being  in  fact  closely 
similar  to  the  practice  adopted  in  the  mining  of 
a  channel  for  protection  against  submarines  and 
hostile  ships. 

The  suggestion  is  that  these  mines  should  be  sent 
aloft  at  dusk  or  upon  the  approach  of  thick  and  foggy 
weather,  and  should  be  wound  in  at  dawn  or  when 
the  atmosphere  cleared,  inasmuch  as  in  fine  weather 
the  floating  aerial  menace  would  be  readily  detected 
by  the  pilot  of  a  dirigible,  and  would  be  carefully 
avoided.  If  the  network  were  sufficiently  intricate 
it  would  not  be  easy  for  an  airship  travelling  at 
night  or  in  foggy  weather  to  steer  clear  of  danger, 
for  the  wires  holding  the  balloons  captive  would  be 
difficult  to  distinguish. 

The  mines  would  depend  upon  detonators  to 
complete  their  work,  and  here  again  they  would  bear 
a  close  resemblance  to  sea-mines.  By  looping  the 
mines   their    deadliness    could    be    increased.     The 


AERIAL   MINES  221 

unsuspicious  airship,  advancing  under  cover  of 
darkness  or  thick  weather,  might  foul  one  of  the 
wires,  and,  driving  forward,  would  tend  to  pull 
one  or  more  mines  against  itself.  Under  the  force 
of  the  impact,  no  matter  how  gentle,  or  slight,  one 
or  more  of  the  detonating  levers  would  be  moved, 
causing  the  mine  to  explode,  thus  bursting  the 
lifting  bag  of  the  vessel,  and  firing  its  gaseous 
contents.  An  alternative  method,  especially  when 
a  cable  carried  only  a  single  mine,  would  be  to  wind 
in  the  captive  balloon  directly  the  wire  was  fouled 
by  an  invading  aerial  craft,  the  process  being  con- 
tinued until  the  mine  was  brought  against  the  vessel 
and  thereby  detonated. 

Another  proposed  mining  method  differs  materially 
in  its .  application.  In  this  instance  it  is  suggested 
that  the  mines  should  be  sent  aloft,  but  should  not 
be  of  the  contact  type,  and  should  not  be  fired  by 
impact  detonators,  but  that  dependence  should  be 
placed  rather  upon  the  disturbing  forces  of  a  severe 
concussion  in  the  air. 

The  mines  would  be  floating  aloft,  and  the  advance 
of  the  airship  would  be  detected.  The  elevation 
of  the  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  the  invading  craft 
would  be  known,  while  the  altitude  of  the  airship 
in  relation  thereto  could  be  calculated.  Then, 
it  is  proposed  that  a  mine  within  a  certain  radius  of 
the  approaching  craft,  and,  of  course,  below  it, 
should  be  fired  electrically  from  the  ground.  It  is 
maintained  that  if  the  charge  were  sufficiently  heavy 


222    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

and  an  adequate  sheet  of  flame  were  produced  as 
a  result  of  the  ignition,  an  airship  within  a  hun- 
dred yards  thereof  would  be  imperilled  seriously, 
while  the  other  mines  would  also  be  fired,  com- 
municating ignition  from  one  to  the  other.  The 
equilibrium  of  the  airship  is  so  delicate  that  it  can 
be  readily  upset,  and  taking  into  account  the  facts 
that  gas  is  always  exuding  from  the  bag,  and  that 
hydrogen  has  a  tendency  to  spread  somewhat  in 
the  manner  of  oil  upon  water,  it  is  argued  that  the 
gas  would  be  ignited,  and  would  bring  about  the 
explosion  of  the  airship. 

Another  method  has  even  been  advocated.  It 
is  averred  in  authoritative  circles  that  when  the 
aerial  invasion  in  force  of  Great  Britain  is  attempted, 
the  Zeppelins  will  advance  under  the  cover  of  clouds. 
Also  that  the  craft  will  make  for  one  objective — 
London.  Doubtless  advantage  mil  be  taken  of 
clouds,  inasmuch  as  they  will  extend  a  measure  of 
protection  to  the  craft,  and  will  probably  enable 
the  invading  fleet  to  elude  the  vigilance  of  the 
aeroplane  scouts  and  patrols.  Under  these  circimi- 
stances  it  is  suggested  that  balloon-mines  should 
be  sent  aloft  and  be  concealed  in  the  clouds.  It 
would  be  impossible  to  detect  the  wires  holding 
them  captive,  so  that  the  precise  location  of  the 
lurking  danger  would  not  be  divined  by  the  invader. 
Of  course,  the  chances  are  that  the  invading  airship 
would  unconsciously  miss  the  mines ;  on  the  other 
hand   the   possibihties   are   equaUy   great   that   it 


PROPOSED  MINING  OF  ZEPPELINS  223 

would  blunder  into  one  of  these  traps  and  be  blown 
to  atoms. 

An  English  airman  has  recently  suggested  a  means 
of  mining  invading  Zeppelins  which  differs  completely 
from  the  foregoing  proposals.  His  idea  is  that 
aeroplanes  should  be  equipped  with  small  mines 
of  the  contact  type,  charged  with  high  explosives, 
and  that  the  latter  should  be  lowered  from  the 
aeroplane  and  be  trawled  through  the  atmosphere. 
As  an  illustration  I  will  suppose  that  a  hostile 
aircraft  is  sighted  by  a  patrolling  aeroplane.  The 
pilot's  companion  in  the  latter  immediately  prepares 
his  aerial  mine,  fixing  the  detonator,  and  attaching 
the  mine  to  the  wire.  The  latter  is  then  dropped 
overboard,  the  wire  being  paid  out  from  a  winch 
until  it  has  descended  to  the  level  of  the  hostile 
craft.  The  airman  now  manoeuvres  in  the  air 
circling  about  the  airship,  dragging  his  mine  behind 
him,  and  endeavouring  to  throw  it  across  or  to  bring 
it  into  contact  with  the  airship  below.  Naturally 
the  latter,  directly  it  observed  the  airman's  object, 
would  endeavour  to  elude  the  pursuing  trawling 
mine,  either  by  crowding  on  speed  or  by  rising 
to  a  greater  altitude.  The  aeroplane,  however, 
would  have  the  advantage  both  in  point  of  speed 
and  powers  of  chmbing,  while  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  sight  of  the  mine  swinging  in  the  air  would 
exert  a  decisive  moral  effect  upon  those  in  the  airship. 

Attempts  to  render  the  mine  harmless  by  dis- 
charging it  prematurely  with  the  aid  of  rifle  and 


224    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

machine-gun  fire  would,  of  course,  be  made  by  the 
crew  of  the  airship,  but  the  trawUng  mine  would 
prove  a  very  difficult  target  to  strike.  If  such  a 
missile  were  used  against  an  airship  of  the  proportions 
of  a  Zeppelin  the  mine  would  inevitably  be  trawled 
across  the  vessel  sooner  or  later.  Once  the  airship 
had  been  fouled,  the  aviator  would  merely  have  to 
drive  ahead,  dragging  the  wire  and  its  charge 
across  the  gas-bag  until  at  last  one  of  the  contact 
levers  of  the  mine  was  moved  by  being  dragged 
against  some  part  of  the  vessel,  when  the  mine 
would  be  exploded.  In  such  operations  the  aviator 
would  run  a  certain  risk,  as  he  would  be  more 
or  less  above  the  airship,  and  to  a  certain  degree 
within  the  zone  of  the  ultimate  explosion.  But 
there  is  no  doubt  that  he  would  succeed  in  his 
*'  fishing  "  exploit  within  a  very  short  time. 

This  ingenious  scheme  has  already  been  tested 
upon  a  small  scale  and  has  been  found  effective, 
the  trawling  bomb  being  drawn  across  its  target 
and  fired  by  contact  within  a  few  minutes.  The 
experiment  seems  to  prove  that  it  would  be  simpler 
and  more  effectual  to  attack  a  hostile  aircraft 
such  as  a  Zeppelin  in  this  manner  than  to  drop 
free  bombs  at  random.  Moreover,  we  cannot  doubt 
that  the  sight  of  a  mine  containing  even  ten  or  twelve 
pounds  of  high  explosive  danghng  at  the  end  of 
a  wire  would  precipitate  a  retreat  on  the  part 
of  an  airship  more  speedily  than  any  other  combative 
expedient. 


KRUPP  AERIAL   TORPEDO      225 

The  advocate  of  this  mine-trawling  method,  who 
is  a  well-known  aviator,  anticipates  no  difficulty 
in  manoeuvring  a  mine  weighing  30  pounds  at  the 
end  of  300  feet  of  fine  wire.  Success  depends 
in  a  great  measure  on  the  skill  of  the  aviator  in 
maintaining  a  constant  tension  upon  the  line  until 
it  falls  across  its  objective. 

The  process  calls  for  a  certain  manifestation  of 
skill  in  manoeuvring  the  aeroplane  in  relation  to 
the  airship,  judgment  of  distance,  and  ability  to 
operate  the  aeroplane  speedily.  The  rapid  ascen- 
sional capability  of  the  airship,  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  aeroplane,  is  a  disadvantage,  but  on 
the  other  hand,  the  superior  mobility  and  speed 
of  the  aeroplane  would  tell  decisively  for  success. 

Among  the  many  wonders  which  the  Krupp 
organisation  is  stated  to  have  perfected,  and  which 
it  is  claimed  will  create  considerable  surprise,  is 
the  aerial  torpedo.  Many  of  the  Krupp  claims  are 
wildly  chimerical,  as  events  have  already  proved, 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  considerable  effort  has 
been  expended  upon  this  latest  missile,  for  which 
the  firm  is  said  to  have  paid  the  inventor  upwards 
of  £25,000 — $125,000.  Curiously  enough  the  pro- 
jectile was  perfected  within  gunshot  of  the  British 
aerodrome  of  Hendon  and  is  stated  to  have  been 
offered  to  the  British  Government  at  the  time, 
and  to  have  met  with  a  chiUing  reception.  One  fact, 
however,  is  well  established.  The  inventor  went  to 
Germany,  and  submitted  his  idea  to  Krupp,  by  whom 


226    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

it  was  tested  without  delay.  Upon  the  completion 
of  the  purchase,  the  great  armament  manufacturers 
did  not  fail  to  publish  broadcast  the  fact  that  they 
had  acquired  a  mysterious  new  terror  of  the  skies. 
That  was  some  three  years  ago,  and  in  the  interval 
the  cleverest  brains  of  the  German  firm  have  been 
steadily  devoting  their  time  and  energies  to  the 
improvement  of  the  missile,  the  first  appearance 
of  which  was  recorded,  in  a  somewhat  hazy  manner, 
in  the  closing  days  of  December. 

While  the  exact  mechanism  of  this  missile  is 
a  secret,  the  governing  principles  of  its  design 
and  operation  are  known  to  a  select  few  technicians 
in  this  country.  Strange  to  say,  the  projectile 
was  designed  in  the  first  instance  in  the  interests  of 
peace  and  humanity,  but  while  engaged  upon  his 
experiments  the  inventor  suddenly  concluded  that 
it  would  be  a  more  profitable  asset  if  devoted  to 
the  grim  game  of  war.  At  the  time  the  military 
significance  of  the  airship  and  the  aeroplane  were 
becoming  apparent ;  hence  the  sudden  diversion 
of  the  idea  into  a  destructive  channel. 

This  aerial  torpedo  is  a  small  missile  carrying  a 
charge  of  high  explosive,  such  as  trinitrotoluene, 
and  depends  for  its  detonation  upon  impact  or  a 
time  fuse.  It  is  launched  into  the  air  from  a  cradle 
in  the  manner  of  the  ordinary  torpedo,  but  the 
initial  velocity  is  low.  The  torpedo  is  fitted  with  its 
own  motive  power,  which  comes  automatically  into 
action  as  the  missile  climbs  into  the  air.     This  self- 


AMERICAN  AERIAL   TORPEDO  227 

contained  energy  is  so  devised  that  the  maximum 
power  is  attained  before  the  missile  has  lost  the 
velocity  imparted  in  the  first  instance,  the  result 
being  that  it  is  able  to  continue  its  flight  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction  from  the  moment  it  attains  the 
highest  point  in  its  trajectory,  which  is  naturally 
varied  according  to  requirements.  But  there  is  no 
secret  about  the  means  of  propulsion.  The  body  is 
charged  with  a  slow-burning  combustible,  in  the 
manner  of  the  ordinary  rocket,  whereby  it  is  given 
a  rapid  rotary  motion. 

Furthermore  it  is  stated  to  be  fitted  with  a  small 
gyroscope  in  the  manner  of  the  torpedo  used  in  the 
seas,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  direction 
during  flight,  but  upon  this  point  there  is  con- 
siderable divergence  of  opinion  among  technicians, 
the  general  idea  being  that  the  torpedo  depends 
upon  an  application  of  the  principle  of  the  ordinary 
rocket  rather  than  upon  a  small  engine  such  as  is 
fitted  to  the  ordinary  torpedo.  The  employment 
of  a  slow  combustible  ensures  the  maintenance  of 
the  missile  in  the  air  for  a  period  exceeding  that  of 
the  ordinary  shell.  It  is  claimed  by  the  Germans 
that  this  projectile  will  keep  aloft  for  half-an-hour 
or  more,  but  this  is  a  phantasy.  Its  maintenance  of 
flight  is  merely  a  matter  of  minutes. 

The  belated  appearance  of  this  much-lauded 
projectile  and  its  restricted  use  suggest  that  it  is 
unreliable,  and  perhaps  no  more  effective  than  the 
aerial  torpedo  which  appeared  in  the  United  States 

Q2 


228    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

during  the  Spanish-American  War,  and  proved  a 
complete  failure.  An  effective  and  reliable  means  of 
combating  or  frustrating  a  dirigible  attack,  other 
than  by  gun-fire  or  resort  to  the  drastic  remedy  of 
ramming  the  enemy,  has  yet  to  be  devised. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

WIRELESS   IN   AVIATION 

In  a  previous  chapter  the  various  methods  of 
signaUing  between  the  ground  and  the  airman  aloft 
have  been  described.  Seeing  that  wireless  telegraphy 
has  made  such  enormous  strides  and  has  advanced 
to  such  a  degree  of  perfection,  one  naturally  would 
conclude  that  it  constitutes  an  ideal  system  of 
communication  under  such  conditions  in  military 
operations. 

But  this  is  not  the  case.  Wireless  is  utilised  only 
to  a  very  limited  extent.  This  is  due  to  two  causes. 
The  one  is  of  a  technical,  the  other  of  a  strategical 
character. 

The  uninitiated,  bearing  in  mind  the  comparative 
ease  with  which  wireless  installations  may  be 
established  at  a  relatively  small  expense,  would  not 
unreasonably  think  that  no  serious  difficulties  of  a 
technical  character  could  arise  :  at  least  none  which 
would  defy  solution.  But  these  difficulties  exist 
in  two  or  three  different  fields,  each  of  which  is 


230    AEROPLANES  AND   DIRIGIBLES 

peculiarly  complex  and  demands  individual  treat- 
ment. 

In  the  first  place,  there  is  the  weight  of  the 
necessary  installation.  In  the  case  of  the  dirigible 
this  may  be  a  secondary  consideration,  but  with 
the  aeroplane  it  is  a  matter  of  primary  and  vital 
importance.  Again,  under  present  conditions,  the 
noise  of  the  motor  is  apt  to  render  the  intelligent 
deciphering  of  messages  while  aloft  a  matter  of 
extreme  difficulty,  especially  as  these  are  com- 
municated in  code.  The  engine  noise  might  be 
effectively  overcome  by  the  use  of  a  muffler  such  as 
is  used  with  automobiles,  but  then  there  is  the 
further  difficulty  of  vibration. 

This  problem  is  being  attacked  in  an  ingenious 
manner.  It  is  proposed  to  substitute  for  audible 
signals  visual  interpretations,  by  the  aid  of  an 
electric  lamp,  the  fluctuations  in  which  would 
correspond  to  the  dots  and  dashes  of  the  Morse  code. 
Thus  the  airman  would  read  his  messages  by  sight 
instead  of  by  sound. 

This  method,  however,  is  quite  in  its  infancy, 
and  although  attractive  in  theory  and  fascinating 
as  a  laboratory  experiment  or  when  conducted  under 
experimental  conditions,  it  has  not  proved  reliable 
or  effective  in  aeronautical  operations.  But  at 
the  same  time  it  indicates  a  promising  line  of 
research  and  development. 

Then  there  are  the  problems  of  weight  and  the 
aerial.     So  far  as  present  knowledge  goes,  the  most 


DUBILIER  AND  ROUGET  SYSTEMS  231 

satisfactory  form  of  aerial  yet  exploited  is  that 
known  as  the  traiUng  wire.  From  300  to  700 
feet  of  wire  are  coiled  upon  a  reel,  and  when  aloft 
this  wire  is  paid  out  so  that  it  hangs  below  the 
aeroplane.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  the  machine 
is  travelling  at  high  speed  it  trails  horizontally 
astern,  but  this  is  immaterial.  One  investigator, 
who  strongly  disapproves  of  the  trailing  aerial,  has 
carried  out  experiments  with  a  network  of  wires 
laid  upon  and  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  aero- 
plane's wings.  But  the  trailing  wire  is  generally 
preferred,  and  certainly  up  to  the  present  has 
proved  more  satisfactory. 

The  greatest  obstacle,  however,  is  the  necessary 
apparatus.  The  average  aeroplane  designed  for 
military  duty  is  already  loaded  to  the  maximum. 
As  a  rule  it  carries  the  pilot  and  an  observer,  and 
invariably  includes  a  light  arm  for  defence  against 
an  aerial  enemy,  together  with  an  adequate  supply 
of  ammunition,  while  unless  short  sharp  flights  are 
to  be  made,  the  fuel  supply  represents  an  appreciable 
load.  Under  these  circumstances  the  item  of 
weight  is  a  vital  consideration.  It  must  be  kept 
within  a  limit  of  100  pounds,  and  the  less  the  equip- 
ment weighs  the  more  satisfactory  it  is  likely  to 
prove,  other  things  being  equal. 

The  two  most  successful  systems  yet  exploited 
are  the  Dubilier  and  the  Rouget.  The  former  is  an 
American  invention,  the  latter  is  of  French  origin. 
Both   have   been   tested   by   the   British   Mihtary 


232    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

Aeronautical  Department,  and  the  French  authorities 
have  subjected  the  French  system  to  rigorous  trials. 
Both  systems,  within  their  limitations,  have  proved 
satisfactory. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  the  Dubilier  system  is 
the  production  of  sine  waves  of  musical  frequency 
from  continuous  current,  thus  dispensing  with  the 
rotary  converter.  The  operating  principle  is  the 
obtaining  of  a  series  of  unidirectional  impulses  by 
a  condenser  discharge,  the  pulsating  currents  follow- 
ing one  another  at  regular  intervals  at  a  frequency 
of  500  impulses  per  second,  which  may  be  augmented 
up  to  1,000  impulses  per  second.  The  complete 
weight  of  such  an  apparatus  is  40  pounds ;  the 
electric  generator,  which  is  no  larger  than  the  motor 
used  for  driving  the  ordinary  table  ventilating  fan, 
accounts  for  16  pounds  of  this  total.  Under  test 
at  sea,  upon  the  deck  of  a  ship,  a  range  of  250  miles 
has  been  obtained.  The  British  Government 
carried  out  a  series  of  experiments  with  this  system, 
using  a  small  plant  weighing  about  30  pounds,  with 
which  communication  was  maintained  up  to  about 
20  miles. 

In  the  French  system  the  Rouget  transmitter  is 
employed.  The  apparatus,  including  the  dynamo, 
which  is  extremely  small,  weighs  in  all  70  pounds. 
A  small  alternator  of  200  watts  and  100  volts  is 
coupled  direct  to  the  aeroplane  motor,  a  new  clutch 
coupler  being  employed  for  this  purpose.  By 
means  of  a  small  transformer  the  voltage  is  raised  to 


PORTABLE  WIRELESS  EQUIPMENT  233 

30,000  volts,  at  which  the  condenser  is  charged.  In 
this  instance  the  musical  spark  method  is  employed. 

The  whole  of  the  high  tension  wiring  is  placed 
within  a  small  space  so  as  not  to  endanger  the  pilot, 
while  the  transformer  is  hermetically  sealed  in  a 
box  with  paraffin.  The  aerial  comprises  a  trailing 
wire  100  feet  in  length,  which,  however,  can  be 
wound  in  upon  its  reel  within  15  seconds.  This 
reeled  antenna,  moreover,  is  fitted  with  a  safety 
device  whereby  the  wire  can  be  cut  adrift  in  the 
event  of  an  accident  befalling  the  aeroplane  and 
necessitating  an  abrupt  descent.  With  this  apparatus 
the  French  authorities  have  been  able  to  maintain 
communication  over  a  distance  of  30  miles. 

In  maintaining  ethereal  communication  with 
aeroplanes,  however,  a  portable  or  mobile  station 
upon  the  ground  is  requisite,  and  this  station  must 
be  within  the  radius  of  the  aerial  transmitter,  if 
messages  are  to  be  received  from  aloft  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy  and  reliability.  Thus  it  will  be 
r-ecognised  that  the  land  station  is  as  important  as 
the  aeroplane  equipment,  and  demands  similar 
consideration. 

A  wide  variety  of  systems  have  been  employed 
to  meet  these  conditions.  There  is  the  travelling 
automobile  station,  in  which  the  installation  is 
mounted  upon  a  motor-car.  In  this  instance  the 
whole  equipment  is  carried  upon  a  single  vehicle, 
while  the  antenna  is  stowed  upon  the  roof  and  can 
be   raised   or   lowered   within   a   few   seconds.     If 


234    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

motor-traction  is  unavailable,  then  animal  haulage 
may  be  employed,  but  in  this  instance  the  installation 
is  divided  between  two  vehicles,  one  carrying  the 
transmitting  and  receiving  apparatus  and  the 
generating  plant,  the  other  the  fuel  supplies  and  the 
aerial,  together  with  spare  parts. 

The  motive  power  is  supplied  by  a  small  air- 
cooled  petrol  or  gasoline  motor  developing  eight 
horse-power,  and  coupled  direct  to  a  2-kilo  watt 
alternator.  At  one  end  of  the  shaft  of  the  latter  the 
disk  discharger  is  mounted,  its  function  being  to 
break  up  the  train  of  waves  into  groups  of  waves, 
so  as  to  impart  a  musical  sound  to  the  note  produced 
in  the  receiver.  A  flexible  cable  transmits  the  electric 
current  from  the  generator  to  the  wagon  containing 
the  instruments.  The  aerial  is  built  up  of  masts 
carried  in  sections. 

The  Germans  employ  a  mobile  apparatus  which  is 
very  similar,  but  in  this  instance  the  mast  is  tele- 
scopic. When  closed  it  occupies  but  little  space. 
By  turning  the  winch  handle  the  mast  is  extended, 
and  can  be  carried  to  any  height  up  to  a  maximum 
of  about  100  feet.  The  capacity  of  these  mobile 
stations  varies  within  wide  limits,  the  range  of  the 
largest  and  most  powerful  installations  being  about 
200  miles.  The  disadvantage  of  these  systems, 
however,  is  that  they  are  condemned  to  territories 
where  the  ground  at  the  utmost  is  gently  undulating, 
and  where  there  are  roads  on  which  four-wheeled 
vehicles  can  travel. 


PACK   INSTALLATION  235 

For  operation  in  hilly  districts,  where  only  trails 
are  to  be  found,  the  Marconi  Company,  has  perfected 
what  may  be  described  as  "  pack  "  and  "  knap- 
sack "  installations  respectively.  In  the  first 
named  the  whole  of  the  installation  is  mounted 
upon  the  backs  of  four  horses.  The  first  carries 
the  generator  set,  the  second  the  transmitting 
instruments,  the  third  the  receiving  equipment, 
and  the  fourth  the  detachable  mast  and  stays. 

The  generator  is  carried  upon  the  horse's  saddle, 
and  is  fitted  with  a  pair  of  legs  on  each  side.  On 
one  side  of  the  saddle  is  mounted  a  small  high- 
speed explosion  motor,  while  on  the  opposite  side,  in 
axial  alignment  with  the  motor,  is  a  small  dynamo. 
When  it  is  desired  to  erect  the  installation  the  saddle 
carrying  this  set  is  removed  from  the  horse's  back 
and  placed  upon  the  ground,  the  legs  acting  as  the 
support.  A  length  of  shaft  is  then  slipped  into 
sockets  at  the  inner  ends  of  the  motor  and  dynamo 
shafts  respectively,  thus  coupling  them  directly, 
while  the  current  is  transmitted  through  a  short 
length  of  flexible  cable  to  the  instruments.  The 
mast  itself  is  made  in  lengths  of  about  four  feet, 
which  are  slipped  together  in  the  manner  of  the 
sections  of  a  fishing  rod,  and  erected,  being  supported 
by  means  of  wire  guys.  In  this  manner  an  an- 
tenna from  40  to  50  feet  in  height  may  be  obtained. 

The  feature  of  this  set  is  its  compactness,  the  equal 
division  of  the  sections  of  the  installation,  and  the 
celerity  with  which  the  station  may  be  set  up  and  dis- 


236    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

mantled.  In  extremely  mountainous  country  such  as 
the  Vosges,  where  it  is  even  difficult  for  a  pack-horse 
to  climb  to  commanding  or  suitable  positions, 
there  is  still  another  set  which  has  been  perfected 
by  the  Marconi  Company.  This  is  the  "  knap- 
sack "  set,  in  which  the  whole  of  the  installation, 
necessarily  light,  small,  and  compact,  is  divided 
among  four  men,  and  carried  in  the  manner  of 
knapsacks  upon  their  backs.  Although  necessarily 
of  limited  radius,  such  an  installation  is  adequate 
for  communication  within  the  restricted  range 
of  air-craft. 

Greater  difficulties  have  to  be  overcome  in  the 
mounting  of  a  wireless  installation  upon  a  dirigible. 
When  the  Zeppelin  was  finally  accepted  by  the 
German  Government,  the  military  authorities 
emphasised  the  great  part  which  wireless  telegraphy 
was  destined  to  play  in  connection  with  such  craft. 
But  have  these  anticipations  been  fulfilled  ?  By 
no  means,  as  a  little  reflection  will  suffice  to  prove. 

In  the  first  place,  a  wireless  outfit  is  about  the 
most  dangerous  piece  of  equipment  which  could 
be  carried  by  such  a  craft  as  the  Zeppelin  unless 
it  is  exceptionally  well  protected.  As  is  well- 
known,  the  rigidity  of  this  type  of  airship  is  depen- 
dent upon  a  large  and  complicated  network  of 
aluminium,  which  constitutes  the  frame.  Such 
a  huge  mass  of  metal  constitutes  an  excellent 
collector  of  electricity  from  the  atmosphere ;  it 
becomes  charged  to  the  maximum  with  electricity. 


DANGERS  OF  ALUMINIUM      237 

In  this  manner  a  formidable  contributory  source 
of  danger  to  the  airship  is  formed.  In  fact,  this 
was  the  reason  why  "  Z-IV  "  vanished  suddenly 
in  smoke  and  flame  upon  falling  foul  of  the  branches 
of  trees  during  its  descent.  At  the  time  the  Zeppelin 
was  a  highly  charged  electrical  machine  or  battery 
as  it  were,  insulated  by  the  surrounding  air.  Dir- 
ectly the  airship  touched  the  trees  a  short  circuit 
was  established,  and  the  resultant  spark  sufficed 
to  fire  the  gas,  which  is  continuously  exuding  from 
the  gas  bags. 

After  this  accident  minute  calculations  were  made 
and  it  was  ascertained  that  a  potential  difference 
of  no  less  than  100,000  volts  existed  between  the 
framework  of  the  dirigible  and  the  trees.  This 
tension  sufficed  to  produce  a  spark  4  inches  in  length. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  the  establishment  of  the 
electric  equilibrium  by  contact  with  the  trees, 
which  produced  such  a  spark  should  fire  the  hydrogen 
inflation  charge.  In  fact  the  heat  generated  was 
so  intense  that  the  aluminium  metallic  framework 
was  fused.  The  measurements  which  were  made 
proved  that  the  gas  was  consumed  within  15  seconds 
and  the  envelope  destroyed  within  20  seconds. 

As  a  result  of  this  disaster  endeavours  were 
made  to  persuade  Count  Zeppelin  to  abandon  the 
use  of  aluminium  for  the  framework  of  his  balloon 
but  they  were  fruitless,  a  result  no  doubt  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  inventor  of  the  airship  of  this  name 
has   but    a   superficial    knowledge    of   the    various 


238    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

sciences  which  bear  upon  aeronautics,  and  fully 
illustrates  the  truth  of  the  old  adage  that  "  a  little 
learning  is  a  dangerous  thing."  Count  Zeppelin 
continues  to  work  upon  his  original  lines,  but  the 
danger  of  his  system  of  construction  was  not  lost 
upon  another  German  investigator,  Professor 
Schiitte,  who  forthwith  embarked  upon  the  construc- 
tion of  another  rigid  system,  similar  to  that  of 
Zeppelin,  at  Lanz.  In  this  vessel  aluminium  was 
completely  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  framework 
of  ash  and  poplar. 

The  fact  that  the  aluminium  constituted  a  dan- 
gerous collector  of  electricity  rendered  the  installation 
of  wireless  upon  the  Zeppelin  not  only  perilous  but 
difficult.  Very  serious  disturbances  of  an  electrical 
nature  were  set  up,  with  the  result  that  wireless 
communication  between  the  travelling  dirigible  and 
the  ground  below  was  rendered  extremely  uncertain. 
In  fact,  it  has  never  yet  been  possible  to  com- 
municate over  distances  exceeding  about  150  miles. 
Apart  from  this  defect,  the  danger  of  operating  the 
wireless  is  obvious,  and  it  is  generally  believed  in 
technical  circles  that  the  majority  of  the  Zeppelin 
disasters  from  fire  have  been  directly  attributable 
to  this,  especially  those  disasters  which  have  occurred 
when  the  vessel  has  suddenly  exploded  before  coming 
into  contact  with  terrestrial  obstructions. 

In  the  later  vessels  of  this  type  the  wireless 
installation  is  housed  in  a  well  insulated  com- 
partment.    This  insulation  has  been  carried  to  an 


WIRELESS  IN  ZEPPELINS   239 

extreme  degree,  which  indicates  that  at  last  the 
authorities  have  recognised  the  serious  menace  that 
wireless  offers  to  the  safety  of  the  craft,  with  the 
result  that  every  protective  device  to  avoid  disaster 
from  this  cause  has  been  freely  adopted. 

The  fact  that  it  is  not  possible  to  maintain  com- 
munication over  a  distance  exceeding  some  20  miles 
is  a  severe  handicap  to  the  progressive  development 
of  wireless  telegraphy  in  this  field.  It  is  a  totally 
inadequate  radius  when  the  operations  of  the  present 
war  are  borne  in  mind.  A  round  journey  of  200, 
or  even  more  miles  is  considered  a  mere  jaunt  ; 
it  is  the  long  distance  flight  which  counts,  and 
which  contributes  to  the  value  of  an  airman's 
observations.  The  general  impression  is  that  the 
fighting  line  or  zone  comprises  merely  two  or  three 
successive  stretches  of  trenches  and  other  defences, 
representing  a  belt  five  miles  or  so  in  width,  but  this 
is  a  fallacy.  The  fighting  zone  is  at  least  20  miles 
in  width ;  that  is  to  say,  the  occupied  territory  in 
which  vital  movements  take  place  represents  a 
distance  of  20  miles  from  the  foremost  line  of  trenches 
to  the  extreme  rear,  and  then  comes  the  secondary 
zone,  which  may  be  a  further  10  miles  or  more  in 
depth.  Consequently  the  airman  must  fly  at  least 
30  miles  in  a  bee-line  to  cover  the  transverse  belt  of 
the  enemy's  field  of  operations.  Upon  the  German 
and  Russian  sides  this  zone  is  of  far  greater  depth, 
ranging  up  to  50  miles  or  so  in  width.  In  these 
circumstances    the    difliculties    of    ethereal   com- 


240    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

munication  'twixt  air  and  earth  may  be  realised, 
under  the  present  limitations  of  radius  from  which 
it  is  possible  to  transmit. 

But  there  are  reasons  still  more  cogent  to  explain 
why  wireless  telegraphy  has  not  been  used  upon  a 
more  extensive  scale  during  the  present  campaign. 
Wireless  communication  is  not  secretive.  In  other 
words,  its  messages  may  be  picked  up  by  friend  and 
foe  alike  with  equal  facility.  True,  the  messages 
are  sent  in  code,  which  may  be  unintelligible  to  the 
enemy.  In  this  event  the  opponent  endeavours  to 
render  the  communications  undecipherable  to  one 
and  all  by  what  is  known  as  ''  jambing."  That  is 
to  say,  he  sends  out  an  aimless  string  of  signals  for 
the  purpose  of  confusing  senders  and  receivers,  and 
this  is  continued  without  cessation  and  at  a  rapid 
rate.  The  result  is  that  messages  become  blurred 
and  undecipherable. 

But  there  is  another  danger  attending  the  use  of 
wireless  upon  the  battlefield.  The  fact  that  the 
stations  are  of  limited  range  is  well  known  to  the 
opposing  forces,  and  they  are  equally  well  aware  of 
the  fact  that  aerial  craft  cannot  communicate  over 
long  distances.  For  instance,  A  sends  his  airmen  aloft 
and  conversation  begins  between  the  clouds  and  the 
ground.  Presently  the  receivers  of  B  begin  to 
record  faint  signals.  They  fluctuate  in  intensity, 
but  within  a  few  seconds  B  gathers  that  an  aeroplane 
is  aloft  and  communicating  with  its  base.  By  the 
aid  of  the  field  telephone  B  gets  into  touch  with  his 


PICKING  UP  HOSTILE  WIRELESS  241 

whole  string  of  wireless  stations  and  orders  a  keen 
look-out  and  a  listening  ear  to  ascertain  whether 
they  have  heard  the  same  signals.  Some  report 
that  the  signals  are  quite  distinct  and  growing 
louder,  while  others  declare  that  the  signals  are 
growing  fainter  and  intermittent.  In  this  manner 
B  is  able  to  deduce  in  which  direction  the  aeroplane  is 
flying.  Thus  if  those  to  the  east  report  that  signals 
are  growing  stronger,  while  the  stations  on  the  west 
state  that  they  are  diminishing,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  aeroplane  is  flying  west  to  east,  and  vice  versa 
when  the  west  hears  more  plainly  at  the  expense 
of  the  east.  If,  however,  both  should  report  that 
signals  are  growing  stronger,  then  it  is  obvious  that 
the  aircraft  is  advancing  directly  towards  them. 

It  was  this  ability  to  deduce  direction  from  the 
sound  of  the  signals  which  led  to  the  location  of  the 
Zeppelin  which  came  down  at  Luneville  some 
months  previous  to  the  war,  and  which  threatened 
to  develop  into  a  diplomatic  incident  of  serious 
importance.  The  French  wireless  stations  running 
south-east  to  north-west  were  vigilant,  and  the 
outer  station  on  the  north-west  side  picked  up  the 
Zeppelin's  conversation.  It  maintained  a  discreet 
silence,  but  communicated  by  telephone  to  its 
colleagues  behind. 

Presently  No.  2  station  came  within  range, 
followed  by  Nos.  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  so  on  in  turn.  Thus 
the  track  of  the  Zeppelin  was  dogged  silently  through 
the  air  by  its  wireless  conversation  as  easily  and  as 

R 


242   AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

positively  as  if  its  flight  had  been  followed  by  the 
naked  eye.  The  Zeppelin  travellers  were  quite 
ignorant  of  this  action  upon  the  part  of  the  French, 
and  were  surprised  when  they  were  rounded  up  to 
learn  that  they  had  been  tracked  so  ruthlessly. 
Every  message  which  the  wireless  of  the  Zeppelin 
had  transmitted  had  been  received  and  filed  by  the 
French. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  doubtful  whether 
wireless  telegraphy  between  aircraft  and  the  forces 
beneath  will  be  adopted  extensively  during  the 
present  campaign.  Of  course,  should  some  radical 
improvement  be  perfected,  whereby  communication 
may  be  rendered  absolutely  secretive,  while  no 
intimation  is  conveyed  to  the  enemy  that  ethereal 
conversation  is  in  progress,  then  the  whole  situation 
will  be  changed,  and  there  may  be  remarkable 
developments. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

AIRCRAFT  AND   NAVAL   OPERATIONS 

When  once  the  flying  machine  had  indicated  its 
possibiHties  in  connection  with  land  operations 
it  was  only  natural  that  endeavours  should  be  made 
to  adapt  it  to  the  more  rigorous  requirements  of  the 
naval  service.  But  the  conditions  are  so  vastly 
dissimilar  that  only  a  meagre  measure  of  success 
has  been  recorded.  Bomb-throwing  from  aloft 
upon  the  decks  of  battleships  appeals  vividly  to  the 
popular  imagination,  and  the  widespread  destruction 
which  may  be  caused  by  dropping  such  an  agent 
down  the  funnel  of  a  vessel  into  the  boiler-room  is  a 
favourite  theme  among  writers  of  fiction  and  artists. 
But  hitting  such  an  objective  while  it  is  tearing  at 
high  speed  through  the  water,  from  a  height  of  several 
thousand  feet  is  a  vastly  different  task  from  throwing 
sticks  and  balls  at  an  Aunt  Sally  on  terra  firma  : 
the  target  is  so  small  and  elusive. 

Practically  it  is  impossible  to  employ  the  flying 
machine,  whether  it  be  a  dirigible  or  an  aeroplane, 
in  this  field.     Many  factors  militate  against  such  an 

'''  R  2         • 


244    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

application.  In  the  first  place  there  is  a  very  wide 
difference  between  dry  land  and  a  stretch  of  water  as 
an  area  over  which  to  manoeuvre.  So  far  as  the 
land  is  concerned  descent  is  practicable  at  any  time 
and  almost  anywhere.  But  an  attempt  to  descend 
upon  the  open  sea  even  when  the  latter  is  as  calm  as 
the  proverbial  mill-pond  is  fraught  with  considerable 
danger.  The  air-currents  immediately  above  the 
water  differ  radically  from  those  prevailing  above 
the  surface  of  the  land.  Solar  radiation  also  plays 
a  very  vital  part.  In  fact  the  dirigible  dare  not 
venture  to  make  such  a  landing  even  if  it  be  pro- 
vided with  floats.  The  chances  are  a  thousand  to 
one  that  the  cars  will  become  water-logged,  rendering 
re-ascent  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty,  if  not 
absolutely  impossible.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
aeroplane  when  equipped  with  floats,  is  able  to 
alight  upon  the  water,  and  to  rest  thereon  for  a  time. 
It  may  even  take  in  a  new  supply  of  fuel  if  the 
elements  be  propitious,  and  may  be  able  to  re- 
ascend,  but  the  occasions  are  rare  when  such 
operations  can  be  carried  out  successfully. 

In  operations  over  water  the  airman  is  confronted 
with  one  serious  danger — the  risk  of  losing  his 
bearings  and  his  way.  For  instance,  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  cross  the  North  Sea  by  aeroplane, 
but  only  one  has  proved  successful  so  far.  The 
intrepid  aviator  did  succeed  in  passing  from  the  shore 
of  Britain  to  the  coast  of  Scandinavia.  Many 
people  suppose  that  because  an  airman  is  equipped 


DANGERS   OF  SIDE-DRIFT       245 

with  a  compass  he  must  be  able  to  find  his  way,  but 
this  is  a  fallacy.  The  aviator  is  in  the  same  plight 
as  a  mariner  who  is  compelled  from  circumstances 
to  rely  upon  his  compass  alone,  and  who  is  debarred 
by  inclement  weather  from  deciding  his  precise 
position  by  taking  the  sun.  A  ship  ploughing  the 
waters  has  to  contend  against  the  action  of  cross 
currents,  the  speed  of  which  varies  considerably, 
as  well  as  adverse  winds.  Unless  absolute  correction 
for  these  influences  can  be  made  the  ship  will  wander 
considerably  from  its  course.  The  airman  is  placed 
in  a  worse  position.  He  has  no  means  of  deter- 
mining the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  currents 
prevailing  in  the  atmosphere,  and  his  compass 
cannot  give  him  any  help  in  this  connection,  because 
it  merely  indicates  direction. 

Unless  the  airman  has  some  means  of  determining 
his  position,  such  as  landmarks,  he  fails  to  reaUse 
the  fact  that  he  is  drifting,  or,  even  if  he  becomes 
aware  of  this  fact,  it  is  by  no  means  a  simple  straight- 
forward matter  for  him  to  make  adequate  allowance 
for  the  factor.  Side-drift  is  the  aviator's  greatest 
enemy.  It  cannot  be  determined  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy.  If  the  compass  were  an  infallible 
guide  the  airman  would  be  able  to  complete  a 
^i'^^n  journey  in  dense  fog  just  as  easily  as  in 
clear  weather.  It  is  the  action  of  the  cross  currents 
and  the  unconscious  drift  which  render  movement 
in  the  air  during  fog  as  impracticable  with  safety 
as  manoeuvring  through  the  water  under  similar 


246    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

conditions.  More  than  one  bold  and  skilful  aviator 
has  essayed  the  crossing  of  the  English  Channel 
and,  being  overtaken  by  fog,  has  failed  to  make 
the  opposite  coast.  His  compass  has  given  him 
the  proper  direction,  but  the  side-drift  has  proved 
his  undoing,  with  the  result  that  he  has  missed  his 
objective. 

The  fickle  character  of  the  winds  over  the  water, 
especially  over  such  expanses  as  the  North  Sea, 
constitutes  another  and  seriously  adverse  factor. 
Storms,  squalls,  gales,  and,  in  winter,  blizzards, 
spring  up  with  magical  suddenness,  and  are  so 
severe  that  no  aircraft  could  hope  to  live  in  them. 
But  such  visitations  are  more  to  be  dreaded  by 
the  lighter-than-air  than  by  the  heavier-than-air 
machines.  The  former  offers  a  considerable  area  of 
resistance  to  the  tempest  and  is  caught  up  by  the 
whirlwind  before  the  pilot  fully  grasps  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  natural  phenomenon.  Once  a  dirigible 
is  swept  out  of  the  hands  of  its  pilot  its  doom 
is  sealed. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  speed  attainable  by 
the  aeroplane  constitutes  its  safety.  It  can  run 
before  the  wind,  and  meantime  can  climb  steadily 
and  rapidly  to  a  higher  altitude,  until  at  last  it 
enters  a  contrary  wind  or  even  a  tolerably  quiesfx^nt 
atmosphere.  Even  if  it  encounters  the  tempest 
head  on  there  is  no  immediate  danger  if  the  aviator 
keep  cool.  This  fact  has  been  estabHshed  times 
out  of  number  and  the  airman  has  been  sufficiently 


DIRIGIBLES  IN  A  GALE         247 

skilful  and  quick-witted  to  succeed  in  frustrating 
the  destructive  tactics  of  his  natural  enemy. 

Only  a  short  while  ago  in  France,  British  airmen 
who  went  aloft  in  a  gale  found  the  latter  too  strong 
for  them.  Although  the  machine  was  driven  full 
speed  ahead  it  was  forced  backwards  at  the  rate 
of  10  miles  per  hour  because  the  independent  speed 
of  the  aeroplane  was  less  than  the  velocity  of  the 
wind.  But  a  dirigible  has  never  succeeded  in 
weathering  a  gale  ;  its  bulk,  area,  and  weight,  com- 
bined with  its  relatively  slow  movement,  are  against 
it,  with  the  result  that  it  is  hurled  to  destruction. 

All  things  considered,  the  dirigible  is  regarded 
as  an  impracticable  acquisition  to  a  fleet,  except 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Germans,  who  have  been  induced 
to  place  implicit  reliance  upon  their  monsters. 
The  gullible  Teuton  pubHc  confidently  beheves  that 
their  Dreadnoughts  of  the  air  will  complete  the 
destruction  of  the  British  fleet,  but  responsible 
persons  know  full  well  that  they  will  not  play  such 
a  part,  but  must  be  reserved  for  scouting.  Hitherto, 
in  naval  operations,  mosquito  water-craft,  such 
as  torpedo-boats,  have  been  employed  in  this  service. 
But  these  swift  vessels  suffer  from  one  serious 
disability.  The  range  of  vision  is  necessarily 
limited,  and  a  slight  mist  hanging  over  the  water 
blinds  them ;  the  enemy  may  even  pass  within 
half-a-mile  of  them  and  escape  detection. 

The  Zeppelin  from  its  position  1,000  feet  or  more 
above  the  water,  in  clear  weather,  has  a  tremendous 


248    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

range  of  vision ;  the  horizon  is  about  40  miles 
distant,  as  compared  with  approximately  8  miles 
in  the  case  of  the  torpedo-boat.  Of  course  an  object, 
such  as  a  battleship,  may  be  detected  at  a  far  greater 
range.  Consequently  the  German  naval  programme 
is  to  send  the  Zeppelin  a  certain  distance  ahead 
of  the  battleship  squadron.  The  dirigible  from  its 
coign  of  vantage  would  be  able  to  sight  a  hostile 
squadron  if  it  were  within  visual  range  and  would 
communicate  the  fact  to  the  commander  of  the 
fleet  below.  The  latter  would  decide  his  course 
according  to  information  received;  thus  he  would 
be  enabled  to  elude  his  enemy,  or,  if  the  tidings 
received  from  the  aerial  scout  should  be  favourable, 
to  dispose  his  vessels  in  the  most  favourable  array 
for  attack. 

The  German  code  of  naval  tactics  does  not 
foreshadow  the  use  of  dirigible  aircraft  as  vessels 
of  attack.  Scouting  is  the  primary  and  indeed 
the  only  useful  duty  of  the  dirigible,  although  it 
is  quite  possible  that  the  aerial  craft  might  partici- 
pate in  a  subsequent  naval  engagement,  as,  indeed, 
has  been  the  case.  Its  participation,  however, 
would  be  governed  entirely  by  climatic  conditions. 
The  fact  that  the  dirigible  is  a  weak  unit  of  attack 
in  naval  operations  is  fully  appreciated  by  all  the 
belligerents. 

The  picture  of  a  sky  "  black  with  ZeppeHns  " 
may  appeal  to  the  popular  imagination,  and  may 
induce  the  uninitiated  to  cherish  the  belief  that 


u^ 


f 


1 


SHELLS  THROWN  FROM  ZEPPELINS  249 

such  an  array  would  strike  terror  into  the  hearts 
of  the  foe,  but  the  naval  authorities  are  well  aware 
that  no  material  advantage  would  accrue  from  such 
a  force.  In  the  first  place  they  would  constitute 
an  ideal  target  for  the  enemy*s  vessels.  They 
would  be  compelled  to  draw  within  range  in  order 
to  render  their  own  attack  effective,  and  promiscuous 
shooting  from  below  would  probably  achieve  the 
desired  end.  One  or  more  of  the  hostile  aircraft 
would  be  hit  within  a  short  while.  Such  disasters 
would  undoubtedly  throw  the  aerial  fleet  into 
confusion,  and  possibly  might  interfere  with  the 
tactical  developments  of  its  own  friends  upon  the 
water  below. 

The  shells  hurled  from  the  Zeppelins  would 
probably  inflict  but  little  damage  upon  the  warships 
beneath.  Let  it  be  conceded  that  they  weigh 
about  500  pounds,  which  is  two-thirds  of  the  weight 
of  the  projectile  hurled  from  the  Krupp  28-centi- 
metre howitzer.  Such  a  missile  would  have  but 
little  destructive  effect  if  dropped  from  a  height  of 
1,000  feet.  To  achieve  a  result  commensurate 
with  that  of  the  28-centimetre  howitzer  the  airship 
would  have  to  launch  the  missile  from  a  height  of 
about  7,000  feet.  To  take  aim  from  such  an  altitude 
is  impossible,  especially  at  a  rapidly  moving  target 
such  as  a  battle-cruiser. 

The  fact  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Count 
Zeppehn  himself  has  expressed  the  opinion,  the 
result  of  careful  and  prolonged  experiments,  that 


2SO    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

his  craft  is  practically  useless  at  a  height  exceeding 
5,000  feet.  Another  point  must  not  be  overlooked. 
In  a  spirited  naval  engagement  the  combatants 
would  speedily  be  obliterated  from  the  view  of 
those  aloft  by  the  thick  pall  of  smoke — ^the  com- 
bination of  gun-fire  and  emission  from  the  furnaces — 
and  a  bHnd  attack  would  be  just  as  Hkely  to  damage 
friend  as  foe. 

Even  if  the  aircraft  ventured  to  descend  as  low 
as  5,000  feet  it  would  be  faced  with  another  adverse 
influence.  The  discharge  of  the  heavy  battleship 
guns  would  bring  about  such  an  agitation  of  the 
air  above  as  to  imperil  the  delicate  equilibrium 
of  an  airship.  Nor  must  one  overlook  the  circum- 
stance that  in  such  an  engagement  the  Zeppelins 
would  become  the  prey  of  hostile  aeroplanes.  The 
latter,  being  swifter  and  nimbler,  would  harry  the 
cumbersome  and  slow-moving  dirigible  in  the  manner 
of  a  dog  baiting  a  bear  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
dirigible  would  be  compelled  to  sheer  off  to  secure 
its  own  safety.  Desperate  bravery  and  grim  de- 
termination may  be  magnificent  physical  attributes, 
but  they  would  have  to  be  superhuman  to  face  the 
stinging  recurrent  attacks  of  mosquito-aeroplanes. 

The  limitations  of  the  ZeppeHn,  and  in  fact  of  all 
dirigible  aircraft,  were  emphasised  upon  the  occasion 
of  the  British  aerial  raid  upon  Cuxhaven.  Two 
Zeppelins  bravely  put  out  to  overwhelm  the  cruisers 
and  torpedo  boats  which  accompanied  and  supported 
the  British  sea-planes,  but  when  confronted  with 


TESTS   OF  ENDURANCE         251 

well-placed  firing  from  the  guns  of  the  vessels  below 
they  quickly  decided  that  discretion  was  the  better 
part  of  valour  and  drew  off. 

In  naval  operations  the  aeroplane  is  a  far  more 
formidable  foe,  although  here  again  there  are  many 
limitations.  The  first  and  most  serious  is  the 
severely  limited  radius  of  action.  The  aeroplane 
motor  is  a  hungry  engine,  while  the  fuel  capacity  of 
the  tank  is  restricted.  The  German  military  authori- 
ties speedily  realised  the  significance  of  this  factor 
and  its  bearing  upon  useful  operations,  and  forth- 
with carried  out  elaborate  endurance  tests.  In- 
numerable flights  were  made  with  the  express 
purpose  of  determining  how  long  a  machine  could 
remain  in  the  air  upon  a  single  fuel  supply. 

The  results  of  these  flights  were  collated  and  the 
achievements  of  each  machine  in  this  direction 
carefully  analysed,  a  mean  average  drawn  up,  and 
then  pigeon-holed.  The  results  were  kept  secret, 
only  the  more  sensational  records  being  pubhshed 
to  the  world.  As  the  policy  of  standardisation  in 
the  construction  of  aeroplanes  was  adopted  the 
radius  of  action  of  each  type  became  established. 
It  is  true  that  variations  of  this  factor  even  among 
vessels  exactly  similar  in  every  respect  are  in- 
evitable, but  it  was  possible  to  establish  a  reliable 
mean  average  for  general  guidance. 

The  archives  of  the  Berlin  military  department 
are  crowded  with  facts  and  figures  relating  to  this 
particular  essential,  so  that  the  radius  of  action,  that 


252    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

is  the  mileage  upon  a  single  fuel  charge,  of  any  class 
and  type  of  machine  may  be  ascertained  in  a 
moment.  The  consequence  is  that  the  military 
authorities  are  able  to  decide  the  type  of  aeroplane 
which  is  best  suited  to  a  certain  projected  task. 
According  to  the  dossier  in  the  pigeon-hole,  wherein 
the  results  of  the  type  are  filed,  the  aeroplane  will 
be  able  to  go  so  far,  and  upon  arriving  at  that 
point  will  be  able  to  accomplish  so  much  work,  and 
then  be  able  to  return  home.  Consequently  it 
is  dispatched  upon  the  especial  duty  without  any 
feeling  of  uncertainty. 

Unfortunately,  these  experimental  processes  were 
too  methodical  to  prove  reliable.  The  endurance 
data  were  prepared  from  tests  carried  out  in  the 
aerodrome  and  from  cross-country  trials  accom- 
plished under  ideal  or  fair-weather  conditions.  The 
result  is  that  calculations  have  been  often  upset 
somewhat  rudely  by  weather  conditions  of  a  totally 
unexpected  character,  which  bring  home  vividly  the 
striking  difference  between  theory  and  practice. 

The  British  and  French  aviation  authorities  have 
not  adopted  such  methodical  standardisation  or  rule 
of  thumb  inferences,  but  rather  have  fostered 
individual  enterprise  and  initiative.  This  stimu- 
lation of  research  has  been  responsible  for  the 
creation  of  a  type  of  aeroplane  specially  adapted 
to  naval  service,  and  generically  known  as  the  water- 
plane,  the  outstanding  point  of  difference  from  the 
aeroplane  being  the  substitution  of  canoes  or  floats 


DOCKING   CRADLES  253 

for  the  wheeled  chassis  pecuUar  to  the  land  machine. 
The  flier  is  sturdily  built,  while  the  floats  are  suf- 
ficiently substantial  to  support  the  craft  upon  the 
water  in  calm  weather.  Perhaps  it  was  the  insular 
situation  of  the  British  nation  which  was  responsible 
for  this  trend  of  development,  because  so  far  as 
Britain  is  concerned  the  sea-going  aeroplane  is  in- 
dispensable. But  the  salient  fact  remains  that 
to-day  the  waterplane  service  of  Great  Britain  is  the 
most  efficient  in  the  world,  the  craft  being  speedy, 
designed  and  built  to  meet  the  rough  weather  con- 
ditions which  are  experienced  around  these  islands, 
and  ideal  vessels  for  patrol  and  raiding  duties. 

So  far  as  the  British  practice  is  concerned  the 
waterplane  is  designed  to  operate  in  conjunction 
with,  and  not  apart  from,  the  Navy.  It  has  been 
made  the  eyes  of  the  Navy  in  the  strictest  inter- 
pretation of  the  term.  In  any  such  combination 
the  great  difficulty  is  the  establishment  of  what 
may  be  termed  a  mobile  base,  inasmuch  as  the 
waterplane  must  move  with  the  fleet.  This  end  has 
been  achieved  by  the  evolution  of  a  means  of  carry- 
ing a  waterplane  upon,  and  launching  it  from,  a 
battleship,  if  necessary. 

For  this  purpose  a  docking  cradle  or  w^ay  has  been 
provided  aft  where  the  aeroplane  may  be  housed 
until  the  moment  arrives  for  its  employment. 
Several  vessels  have  been  devoted  to  this  nursing 
duty  and  are  known  as  parent  ships  to  the  waterplane 
service.     All  that  is  requisite  when  the  time  arrives 


254    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

for  the  use  of  the  seaplane  is  to  lift  it  bodily  by 
a  derrick  or  crane  from  its  cradle  and  to  lower  it 
upon  the  water.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
American  naval  authorities  made  an  experiment 
with  a  scheme  for  directly  launching  the  warplane 
from  the  deck  of  a  battleship  in  the  orthodox 
manner,  as  well  as  offering  it  a  spot  upon  which 
to  alight  upon  returning  from  a  flight,  while 
Wing-Commander  Samson,  R.N.,  D.S.O.,  the  famous 
British  airman,  repeated  the  experiment  by  flying 
from  a  similar  launching  way  installed  upon  H.M.S. 
Hihernia.  But  this  practice  has  many  shortcomings. 
So  far  as  the  British  and  French  navies  are  concerned, 
the  former  process  is  preferred.  Again,  when  the 
waterplane  returns  from  a  flight  it  is  admitted  that 
it  is  simpler,  quicker,  and  safer  for  it  to  settle 
upon  the  water  near  the  parent  ship  and  to  be 
lifted  on  board. 

As  a  sea-scout  the  waterplane  is  overwhelmingly 
superior  to  the  dirigible  as  events  have  conclusively 
proved.  Its  greater  mobility  and  speed  stand  it 
in  excellent  stead  because  it  is  able  to  cover  a  larger 
area  within  a  shorter  space  of  time  than  its  huge 
and  unwieldy  contemporary.  Furthermore,  it  is 
a  difficult  target  to  hit  and  accordingly  is  not  so 
likely  to  be  brought  down  by  hostile  fire.  There 
is  another  point  in  its  favour.  The  experience 
of  the  war  has  proved  that  the  numerically  inferior 
enemy  prefers  to  carry  out  his  naval  operations 
under  the  cover  of  the  mist  and  haze  which  settle 


SCOUTING    AT    HELIGOLAND     255 

upon  the  water,  and  yet  are  of  sufficient  depth  to 
conceal  his  identity  and  composition.  Such  mists 
as  a  rule  comprise  a  relatively  thin  bank  of  low- 
lying  vapour,  which  while  enveloping  the  surface 
of  the  water  in  an  impenetrable  pall,  yet  permits 
the  mast-heads  of  the  vessels  to  stand  out  clearly, 
although  they  cannot  be  detected  from  the  water- 
level  or  even  from  the  control  and  fighting  tops 
of  a  warship.  A  scouting  waterplane,  however, 
is  able  to  observe  them  and  note  their  movement, 
and  accordingly  can  collect  useful  information 
concerning  the  apparent  composition  of  the  hidden 
force,  the  course  it  is  following,  its  travelling  speed, 
and  so  forth,  which  it  can  convey  immediately  to 
its  friends. 

The  aeroplane  has  established  its  value  in  another 
manner.  Coal-burning  vessels  when  moving  at 
any  pronounced  speed  invariably  throw  off  large 
quantities  of  smoke,  which  may  be  detected  easily 
from  above,  even  when  the  vessels  themselves  are 
completely  hidden  in  the  mist.  It  was  this  circum- 
stance which  revealed  the  presence  of  the  British 
squadron  in  the  affair  of  the  Bight  of  Heligoland. 

The  German  airman  on  patrol  duty  from  the  ad- 
jacent base  on  the  island  of  Heligoland  detected  the 
presence  of  this  smoke,  above  the  low-lying  bank 
of  fog,  although  there  were  no  other  visible  signs 
of  any  vessels.  Fully  cognisant  of  the  fact  that 
the  German  Fleet  was  at  anchor  in  a  safe  place  he 
naturally  divined  that  the  smoke  proceeded  from  a 


256    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

hostile  squadron,  evidently  bent  upon  a  raid.  He 
returned  to  his  headquarters,  conveyed  the  intelli- 
gence he  had  collected  to  his  superior  officers, 
upon  receipt  of  which  a  German  cruiser  squadron 
was  sent  out  and  engaged  the  British  vessels  to 
its  own  discomfiture.  But  for  the  airman's  vigilance 
and  smartness  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  British 
squadron  would  have  accomplished  a  great  coup. 

This  incident,  however,  served  to  reveal  that  the 
aerial  scout  is  prone  to  suffer  from  over-keenness 
and  to  collect  only  a  partial  amount  of  information. 
Upon  this  occasion  the  German  watchman  detected 
the  presence  of  the  British  torpedo-boat  and  light 
cruiser  force.  Had  he  continued  his  investigations 
and  made  a  wider  sweep  he  would  have  discovered 
the  proximity  of  the  British  battle-cruiser  squadron 
which  routed  the  German  force,  the  latter  having 
acted  on  incomplete  information. 

While  the  low-lying  sea-fog  is  the  navigator's 
worst  enemy,  it  is  the  airman's  greatest  friend 
and  protection.  It  not  only  preserves  him  against 
visual  discovery  from  below,  but  is  an  excellent 
insulator  of  sound,  so  that  his  whereabouts  is  not 
betrayed  by  the  noise  of  his  motor.  It  is  of  in- 
calculable value  in  another  way.  When  a  fog 
prevails  the  sea  is  generally  as  smooth  as  the  pro- 
verbial mirror,  enabling  the  waterplanes  to  be 
brought  up  under  cover  to  a  suitable  point  from 
which  they  may  be  dispatched.  Upon  their  release 
by   climbing   to  a  height  of  a   few  hundred   feet 


THE   FOG   SCREEN  257 

the  airmen  are  able  to  reach  a  clear  atmosphere, 
where  by  means  of  the  compass  it  is  possible  to 
advance  in  approximately  the  desired  direction, 
safe  from  discovery  from  below  owing  to  the  fog. 
If  they  are  "  spotted  "  they  can  dive  into  its  friendly 
depths,  complete  their  work,  and  make  for  the 
parent  ship. 

Low-lying  sea-fogs  are  favourable  to  aerial  raids 
provided  the  scout  is  able  to  catch  sight  of  the 
upper  parts  of  landmarks  to  enable  him  to  be  sure 
of  the  correctness  of  his  line  of  flight — in  cases 
where  the  distance  is  very  short  compass  direction 
is  sufficiently  reliable — because  the  bank  of  vapour 
not  only  constitutes  a  perfect  screen,  but  serves 
as  a  blanket  to  the  motor  exhaust,  if  not  completely, 
at  least  sufficiently  to  mislead  those  below.  Fogs, 
as  every  mariner  will  testify,  play  strange  tricks 
with  the  transmission  of  sound.  Hence,  although 
those  on  the  vessels  below  might  detect  a  slight 
hum,  it  might  possibly  be  so  faint  as  to  convey 
the  impression  that  the  aviator  was  miles  away, 
when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  was  directly  overhead. 
This  confusion  arising  from  sound  aberration  is  a 
useful  protection  in  itself,  as  it  tends  to  lull  a  naval 
force  lying  in  or  moving  through  the  fog  into  a  false 
sense  of  security. 

The  development  of  the  submarine  revealed  the 
incontrovertible  fact  that  this  arm  would  play  a 
prominent  part  in  future  operations  upon  the  water  : 
a  presage  which  has  been  adequately  fulfilled  during 

s 


258    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

the  present  conflict.  The  instinct  of  self-preserva- 
tion at  once  provoked  a  discussion  of  the  most 
effective  ways  and  means  of  discovering  its  where- 
abouts when  it  travels  submerged.  To  this  end 
the  German  naval  authorities  conducted  a  series  of 
elaborate  and  interesting  experiments  off  the  island 
of  HeHgoland.  As  is  well  known,  when  one  is 
directly  above  a  stretch  of  shallow  water,  the  bottom 
of  the  latter  can  be  seen  quite  distinctly.  Con- 
sequently, it  was  decided  to  employ  aerial  craft 
as  detectives.  Both  the  aeroplane  and  the  dirigible 
took  part  in  these  experiments,  being  flown  at 
varying  heights,  while  the  submarine  was  manoeuvred 
at  different  depths  immediately  below.  The  sum 
of  these  investigations  proved  conclusively  that  a 
submarine  may  be  detected  from  aloft  when  moving 
at  a  depth  of  from  30  to  40  feet.  The  outline  of  the 
submerged  craft  is  certainly  somewhat  blurred,  but 
nevertheless  it  is  sufficiently  distinct  to  enable  its 
identity  to  be  determined  readily  against  the  back- 
ground or  bottom  of  the  sea.  To  combat  this 
detection  from  an  aerial  position  it  will  be  necessary 
inter  alia  to  evolve  a  more  harmonious  or  protective 
colour-scheme  for  the  submarine.  These  investi- 
gations were  responsible  for  the  inauguration  of  the 
elaborate  German  aerial  patrol  of  harbours,  the  base 
for  such  aerial  operations  being  established  upon  the 
island  of  Heligoland. 

So  far  the  stern  test  of  war  as  applied  to  the 
science  of  aeronautics  has  emphasised  the  fact  that 


SUPREMACY  OF  THE  AEROPLANE  259 

as  a  naval  unit  the  dirigible  is  a  complete  failure. 
Whether  experience  will  bring  about  a  modification 
of  these  views  time  alone  will  show,  but  it  is  certain 
that  existing  principles  of  design  will  have  to  undergo 
a  radical  revision  to  achieve  any  notable  results. 
The  aeroplane  alone  has  proved  successful  m  this 
domain,  and  it  is  upon  this  type  of  aerial  craft  that 
dependence  will  have  to  be  placed. 


s  2 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE   NAVIES   OF  THE  AIR 

Less  than  three  years  ago  the  momentous  and 
spectacular  race  among  the  Powers  of  Europe  for  the 
supremacy  of  the  air  began.  At  first  the  struggle 
was  confined  to  two  rivals — France  and  Germany — 
but  as  time  progressed  and  the  importance  of  aerial 
fleets  was  recognised,  other  nations,  notably  Great 
Britain,  entered  the  field. 

Germany  obtained  an  advantage.  Experiment 
and  research  were  taken  up  at  a  point  which  had  been 
reached  by  French  effort;  further  experiments  and 
researches  were  carried  out  in  German  circles  with 
secret  and  feverish  haste,  with  the  result  that  within 
a  short  time  a  pronounced  degree  of  efficiency 
according  to  German  ideals  had  been  attained.  The 
degree  of  perfection  achieved  was  not  regarded  with 
mere  academic  interest ;  it  marked  the  parting  of  the 
ways :  the  point  where  scientific  endeavour  com- 
manded practical  appreciation  by  turning  the  success 

of  the  laboratory  and  aerodrome  into  the  channel  of 

260 


AERIAL  FORESIGHT  IN  GERMANY  261 

commercial  manufacture.  In  other  words,  syste- 
matic and  wholesale  production  was  undertaken 
upon  an  extensive  scale.  The  component  parts  were 
standardised  and  arrangements  were  completed 
with  various  estabHshments  possessed  of  the  most 
suitable  machinery  to  perfect  a  programme  for 
turning  out  aeronautical  requirements  in  a  steady, 
continuous  stream  from  the  moment  the  crisis 
developed. 

The  wisdom  of  completing  these  arrangements  in 
anticipation  is  now  apparent.  Upon  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities  many  German  establishments  devoted 
to  the  production  of  articles  required  in  the  infinite 
ramifications  of  commerce  found  themselves  de- 
prived of  their  markets,  but  there  was  no  risk  that 
their  large  plants  would  be  brought  to  a  standstill : 
the  Government  ordered  the  manufacture  of  aero- 
plane parts  and  motors  upon  an  extensive  scale. 
In  this  manner  not  only  were  the  industrial  estab- 
lishments kept  going,  but  their  production  of  aero- 
nautical requirements  relieved  those  organisations 
devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  armaments,  so  that 
the  whole  resources  and  facilities  of  these  could  be 
concentrated  upon  the  supply  of  munitions  of  war. 

In  France  the  air-fleet,  although  extensive  upon 
the  outbreak  of  war,  was  somewhat  heterogeneous. 
Experiment  was  still  being  pursued :  no  type 
had  met  with  definite  official  recognition,  the 
result  being  that  no  arrangements  had  been  com- 
pleted for  the  production  of  one  or  more  standard 


262    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

types  upon  an  elaborate  scale  comparable  with  that 
maintained  by  Germany.  In  fact  some  six  months 
after  the  outbreak  of  war  there  was  an  appreciable 
lack  of  precision  on  this  point  in  French  military 
circles.  Many  of  the  types  which  had  established 
their  success  were  forbidden  by  military  decree  as 
mentioned  in  a  previous  chapter,  while  manufac- 
turing arrangements  were  still  somewhat  chaotic. 

Great  Britain  was  still  more  backward  in  the  new 
movement.  But  this  state  of  affairs  was  in  a 
measure  due  to  the  division  of  the  Fourth  Arm 
among  the  two  services.  A  well-organised  Govern- 
ment manufactory  for  the  production  of  aeroplanes 
and  other  aircraft  necessities  had  been  established, 
while  the  private  manufacturers  had  completed 
preparations  for  wholesale  production.  But  it 
was  not  until  the  Admiralty  accepted  responsibility 
for  the  aerial  service  that  work  was  essayed  in  grim 
earnest. 

The  allocation  of  the  aerial  responsibilities  of 
Great  Britain  to  the  Admiralty  was  a  wise  move. 
Experience  has  revealed  the  advantages  accruing 
from  the  perfection  of  homogeneous  squadrons 
upon  the  water,  that  is  to  say  groups  of  ships  which 
are  virtually  sister-craft  of  identical  speed,  armament, 
and  so  on,  thus  enabling  the  whole  to  act  together 
as  a  complete  effective  unit.  As  this  plan  had 
proved  so  successful  upon  the  water,  the  Admiralty 
decided  to  apply  it  to  the  fleet  designed  for  service 
in  the  air  above. 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  WATERPLANE  263 

At  the  time  this  plan  of  campaign  was  definitely 
settled  Great  Britain  as  an  aerial  power  was  a  long 
way  behind  her  most  formidable  rival,  but  strenuous 
efforts  were  made  to  reduce  the  handicap,  and  within 
a  short  while  the  greater  part  of  this  leeway  had 
been  made  up.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  war  Great 
Britain  undoubtedly  was  inferior  to  Germany  in 
point  of  numbers  of  aircraft,  but  the  latter  Power 
was  completely  outclassed  in  efficiency,  and  from  the 
point  of  view  of  personnel.  The  British  had  de- 
veloped the  waterplane  as  an  essential  auxiliary  to 
naval  operations,  and  here  was  in  advance  of  her 
rival,  who  had  practically  neglected  this  line  of 
experiment  and  evolution,  resting  secure  in  the 
assurance  of  her  advisers  that  the  huge  dirigibles 
would  be  adequate  for  all  exigencies  on  the 
water. 

Indeed,  when  war  was  declared,  all  the  Powers  were 
found  more  or  less  wanting  so  far  as  their  aerial 
fleets  were  concerned.  If  Germany's  huge  aerial 
navy  had  been  in  readiness  for  instant  service  when 
she  invaded  Belgium,  she  would  have  overcome  that 
little  country's  resistance  in  a  far  shorter  time  and 
with  much  less  waste  of  life.  It  was  the  Belgians 
who  first  brought  home  to  the  belligerents  the 
prominent  part  that  aircraft  were  destined  to  play 
in  war,  and  the  military  possibilities  of  the  aeroplane. 
True,  the  Belgians  had  a  very  small  aerial  navy,  but 
it  was  put  to  work  without  delay  and  accomplished 
magnificent  results,  ascertaining  the  German  posi- 


264    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

tions  and  dispositions  with  unerring  accuracy  and 
incredible  ease,  and  thus  enabUng  the  commander 
of  the  Belgian  Army  to  dispose  his  relatively  tiny 
force  to  the  best  advantage,  and  to  offer  the  most 
effective  resistance. 

Great  Britain's  aerial  navy,  while  likewise  some- 
what small,  was  also  ready  for  instant  service.  The 
British  Expeditionary  force  was  supported  by  a 
very  efficient  aerial  fleet,  the  majority  of  the  vessels 
forming  which  flew  across  the  Channel  at  high  speed 
to  the  British  headquarters  in  France  so  as  to  be 
available  directly  military  preparations  were  begun, 
and  the  value  of  this  support  proved  to  be  inestim- 
able, since  it  speedily  demoralised  the  numerically 
superior  enemy. 

France,  like  Germany,  was  somewhat  dilatory, 
but  this  was  attributable  rather  to  the  time  occupied 
in  the  mobilisation  of  the  Fourth  Arm  than  to  lack 
of  energy.  There  were  a  round  1,500  aeroplanes 
ostensibly  ready  for  service,  in  addition  to  some  26 
dirigibles.  But  the  fleet  was  somewhat  scattered, 
while  many  of  the  craft  were  not  immediately 
available,  being  in  the  shops  or  in  dock  for  repairs 
and  overhaul.  During  the  period  of  mobilisation 
the  so-called  standing  military  force  was  augmented 
by  about  500  machines  which  were  acquired  from 
private  owners.  The  aeroplane  factories  were  also 
overhauled  and  re-organised  so  as  to  be  in  a  position 
to  remedy  the  inevitable  wastage,  but  these  organisa- 
tion  efforts   were   somewhat   handicapped  by  the 


THE  RUSSIAN  AERIAL  FLEET    265 

shortage  of  labour  arising  from  the  call  to  arms. 
France,  moreover,  imperilled  her  aerial  strength  by 
forbidding  the  use  of  558  machines  which  were 
ready  for  service. 

Germany's  aerial  fleet  was  of  similar  proportions 
to  that  of  her  Gallic  neighbour,  but  curiously  enough, 
and  in  strange  contrast,  there  appeared  to  be  a  lack 
of  readiness  in  this  ramification  of  the  Teuton  war 
machine.  The  military  establishment  possessed 
about  1,000  machines — active  and  reserve — of  which 
it  is  estimated  700  were  available  for  instant  service. 
During  the  period  of  mobilisation  a  further  450 
machines  were  added  to  the  fleet,  drawn  for  the 
most  part  from  private  owners.  So  far  as  the 
dirigibles  were  concerned  14  Zeppelins  were  ready 
for  duty,  while  others  were  under  construction  or 
undergoing  overhaul  and  repair.  A  few  other  types 
were  also  in  commission  or  acquired  during  mobilisa- 
tion, bringing  the  dirigible  force  to  40  machines  all 
told. 

But  the  greatest  surprise  was  probably  offered  by 
Russia.  Very  little  was  known  concerning  Russian 
activities  in  this  particular  field,  although  it  was 
stated  that  large  orders  for  machines  had  been 
placed  with  various  foreign  manufactories.  Certain 
factories  also  had  been  established  within  the  Empire, 
although  the  character  of  their  work  and  its  results 
and  achievements  were  concealed  from  prying  eyes. 
In  Russia,  however,  an  appreciable  number  of 
private  aeroplanes  were  in  operation,   and  these. 


266    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

of  course,  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  authori- 
ties the  moment  the  crisis  developed. 

The  British  and  French  aeroplane  manufactories 
had  been  busy  upon  Russian  orders  for  many  months 
previous  to  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  while  heavy 
shipments  of  component  parts  had  been  made, 
the  assembling  and  completion  of  the  machines 
being  carried  out  in  the  country.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  upon  the  outbreak  of  war  Russia  had 
a  fleet  of  800  aeroplanes  in  hand,  of  which  total 
150  were  contributed  from  private  sources.  Even 
the  dirigible  had  not  been  overlooked,  there  being 
nearly  20  of  these  craft  attached  to  the  Russian 
Army,  although  for  the  most  part  they  are  small 
vessels. 

In  comparison  with  the  foregoing  large  aerial 
navies,  that  of  Great  Britain  appeared  to  be  puny. 
At  the  moment  Great  Britain  possesses  about  500 
machines,  of  which  about  200  are  waterplanes. 
In  addition,  according  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Admiralty,  15  dirigibles  should  be  in  service.  Private 
enterprise  is  supported  by  the  Government,  which 
maintains  a  factory  for  the  manufacture  of  these 
craft. 

During  the  two  years  preceding  the  outbreak  of 
war  the  various  Powers  grew  remarkably  reticent 
concerning  the  composition  and  enlargement  of 
their  respective  aerial  fleets.  No  official  figures 
were  published.  But  at  the  same  time  it  is  a  well- 
known    fact    that    during    the    year    1913    France 


GERMAN   OUTPUT  267 

augmented  her  flying  force  by  no  fewer  than  544 
aeroplanes.  Germany  was  no  less  energetic,  the 
military  acquisition  in  this  branch,  and  during  the 
self-same  year,  approaching  700  machines  accord- 
ing to  the  semi-official  reports  published  in  that 
country. 

The  arrangements  concluded  for  the  manufacture 
of  additional  craft  during  the  war  are  equally 
remarkable.  The  principal  factory  in  Germany 
(now  devoting  its  energies  to  the  production  of  these 
craft,  although  in  happier  days  its  normal  com- 
plement of  4,000  men  were  responsible  for  the  pro- 
duction of  another  commercial  article)  possesses 
facilities  for  turning  out  30  complete  aeroplanes  per 
week,  according  to  the  statement  of  its  managing 
director.  But  it  is  averred  that  this  statement  is 
purposely  misleading,  inasmuch  as  during  the  first 
fortnight  of  the  campaign  it  was  producing  over  50 
aeroplanes  per  week.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
Germany  is  responsible  for  the  supply  of  the  majority 
of  such  craft  for  the  Austrian  armies,  that  country 
purchasing  these  vessels  in  large  numbers,  because 
in  the  early  days  of  the  conflict  it  was  notoriously 
weak  in  this  arm.  Since  the  declaration  of  war 
strenuous  efforts  have  been  made  to  remedy  this 
state  of  affairs,  particularly  upon  the  unexpected 
revelation  of  Russia's  aerial  strength. 

It  is  computed  that  upon  the  outbreak  of  war  the 
various  Powers  were  in  the  position  to  show  an 
aggregate  of  4,980  aircraft  of  all  descriptions,  both 


268    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

for  active  service  and  reserve.  This  is  a  colossal 
fleet,  but  it  serves  to  convey  in  a  graphic  manner 
the  importance  attached  to  the  aerial  vessel  by  the 
respective  belligerents.  So  far  as  Germany  is  con- 
cerned she  is  sorely  in  need  of  additional  machines. 
Her  fleet  of  the  air  has  lost  its  formidable  character, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  has  to  be  divided  between 
two  frontiers,  while  she  has  been  further  weakened 
by  the  enormous  lengths  of  the  two  battle-fronts. 

Russia  has  been  able  to  concentrate  her  aerial 
force,  which  has  proved  of  incalculable  value  to  the 
Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  who  has  expressed  his 
appreciation  of  the  services  rendered  by  his  fliers 
The  French  likewise  have  been  favoured  by  Fortune 
in  this  respect.  Their  aerial  navy  is  likewise 
concentrated  upon  a  single  frontier,  although  a 
pronounced  proportion  has  been  reserved  for  service 
upon  the  Mediterranean  sea-board  for  co-operation 
with  the  fleet.  France  suffers,  however,  to  a  certain 
degree  from  the  length  of  her  battle-line,  which  is 
over  200  miles  in  length.  The  French  aerial  fleet 
has  been  particularly  active  in  the  Vosges  and 
the  Argonne,  where  the  difficult,  mountainous, 
and  densely  wooded  country  has  rendered  other 
systems  of  observation  of  the  enemy's  movements 
a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty.  The  Germans  have 
laboured  under  a  similar  handicap  in  this  territory, 
and  have  likewise  been  compelled  to  centre  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  their  aerial  fleet  upon  this 
corner  of  the  extended  battlefield. 


WASTAGE  269 

It  is  in  this  region  that  the  greatest  wastage  has 
been  manifest.  I  have  been  informed  by  one 
correspondent  who  is  fighting  in  this  sternly  contested 
area,  that  at  one  time  a  daily  loss  of  ten  German 
machines  was  a  fair  average,  while  high  water 
mark  was  reached,  so  far  as  his  own  observations 
and  ability  to  glean  information  were  concerned, 
by  the  loss  of  19  machines  during  a  single  day. 
The  French  wastage,  while  not  so  heavy  upon  the 
average,  has  been  considerable  at  times. 

The  term  wastage  is  somewhat  misleading,  if 
not  erroneous.  It  does  not  necessarily  imply  the 
total  loss  of  a  machine,  such  as  its  descent  upon 
hostile  territory,  but  includes  damage  to  machines, 
no  matter  how  slight,  landing  within  their  own 
lines.  In  the  difficult  country  of  the  Vosges 
many  aeroplanes  have  come  to  earth  somewhat 
heavily,  and  have  suffered  such  damage  as  to  render 
them  inoperative,  compelling  their  removal  from 
the  effective  list  until  they  have  undergone  complete 
overhaul  or  reconstruction.  Upon  occasions  this 
wastage  has  been  so  pronounced  that  the  French 
aviators,  including  some  of  the  foremost  fliers 
serving  with  the  forces,  have  been  without  a 
machine  and  have  been  compelled  to  wait  their 
turn. 

I  am  informed  that  one  day  four  machines, 
returning  from  a  reconnaissance  in  force,  crashed 
successively  to  the  ground,  and  each  had  to  be 
hauled    away    to    the    repair   sheds,    necessitating 


270    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

withdrawal  from  service  for  several  days.  Unfor- 
tunately the  French,  owing  to  their  decision  to  rule 
out  certain  machines  as  unsuited  to  military  service, 
have  not  yet  perfected  their  organisation  for  making 
good  this  wastage,  although  latterly  it  has  been 
appreciably  reduced  by  greater  care  among  the 
aviators  in  handling  their  vessels. 

The  fast  vessels  of  the  French  aerial  fleet  have 
proved  exceptionally  valuable.  With  these  craft 
speeds  of  95  and  100  miles  or  more  per  hour  have 
been  attained  under  favourable  conditions,  and 
pace  has  proved  distinctly  advantageous,  inasmuch 
as  it  gives  the  French  aviators  a  superiority  of  about 
40  per  cent,  over  the  average  German  machine. 
It  was  the  activity  and  daring  of  the  French  fliers 
upon  these  high  speed  machines  which  induced 
the  German  airmen  to  change  their  tactics.  In- 
dividual effort  and  isolated  raiding  operations 
were  abandoned  in  favour  of  what  might  be 
described  as  combined  or  squadron  attack.  Six 
or  eight  machines  advancing  together  towards 
the  French  lines  somewhat  nonplussed  these  fleet 
French  mosquito  craft,  and  to  a  certain  degree 
nullified  their  superiority  in  pace.  Speed  was 
discounted,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  enemy 
when  so  massed  evinced  a  disposition  to  fight  and 
to  follow  harassing  tactics  when  one  of  the  speediest 
French  machines  ventured  into  the  air. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  aerial  operations, 
now   that   they   are   being   conducted   upon   what 


AERIAL  TACTICS  271 

may  be  termed  methodical  lines  as  distinct  from 
corsair  movements,  are  following  the  broad  funda- 
mental principles  of  naval  tactics.  Homogeneous 
squadrons,  that  is,  squadrons  composed  of  vessels 
of  similar  type  and  armament,  put  out  and  follow 
roughly  the  "  single  Kne  ahead  "  formation.  Upon 
sighting  the  enemy  there  is  the  manoeuvring  for 
position  advantage  which  must  accrue  to  the 
speedier  protagonist.  One  then  witnesses  what 
might  almost  be  described  as  an  application  of 
the  process  of  capping  the  Hne  or  "  crossing  the 
'  T.'  "  This  tends  to  throw  the  slower  squadron 
into  confusion  by  bending  it  back  upon  itself, 
meanwhile  exposing  it  to  a  demoraHsing  fire. 

The  analogy  is  not  precisely  correct,  but  suffi- 
ciently so  to  indicate  that  aerial  battles  will  be  fought 
much  upon  the  same  lines  as  engagements  between 
vessels  upon  the  water.  If  these  manoeuvres 
accomplish  nothing  beyond  breaking  up  and  scat- 
tering the  foe  the  result  is  satisfactory,  inasmuch 
as  in  this  event  it  is  possible  to  exert  a  driving 
tendency  and  to  force  him  back  upon  the  Hues 
of  the  superior  force,  when  the  scattered  vessels 
may  be  brought  within  the  zone  of  spirited  fire 
from  the  ground. 

Attacks  in  force  are  more  likely  to  prove  successful 
than  individual  raiding  tactics,  as  recent  events 
upon  the  battlefield  of  Europe  have  demonstrated 
more  or  less  convincingly.  An  attack  in  force  is 
likely   to   cause   the   defenders   upon   the   ground 


272    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

beneath  to  lose  their  heads  and  to  fire  wildly  and 
at  random,  with  the  result  that  the  airmen  may 
achieve  their  object  with  but  httle  damage  to  them- 
selves. This  method  of  attacking  in  force  was 
essayed  for  the  first  time  by  the  British  aerial 
fleet,  which  perhaps  is  not  surprising,  seeing  that 
the  machines  are  manned  and  the  operations 
supervised  by  officers  who  have  excelled  in  naval 
training,  and  who  are  skilled  in  such  movements. 
No  doubt  this  practice,  combined  with  the  daring 
of  the  British  aviators,  contributed  very  materially 
to  the  utter  demoralisation  of  the  German  aerial 
forces,  and  was  responsible  for  that  hesitancy  to 
attack  a  position  in  the  vicinity  of  the  British 
craft  which  became  so  manifest  in  the  course  of 
a  few  weeks  after  the  outbreak  of  hostihties. 

One  of  the  foremost  military  experts  of  the  United 
States,  who  passed  some  time  in  the  fighting  zone, 
expressed  his  opinion  that  the  British  aerial  force  is 
the  most  efficient  among  the  belligerents  when 
considered  as  a  unit,  the  French  flier  being  described 
by  the  same  authority  as  most  effective  when  acting 
individually,  owing  to  personal  intrepidity.  As  a 
scout  the  French  aviator  is  probably  unequalled, 
because  he  is  quick  to  perceive  and  to  collect  the 
data  required,  and  when  provided  with  a  fast 
machine  is  remarkably  nimble  and  venturesome  in 
the  air.  The  British  aviators,  however,  work  as  a 
whole,  and  in  the  particular  phases  where  such  tactics 


THE  WATERPLANE  273 

are  profitable  have  established  incontestable  super- 
iority. At  first  the  German  aerial  force  appeared  to 
possess  no  settled  system  of  operation.  Individual 
effort  was  pronounced,  but  it  lacked  method.  The 
Germans  have,  however,  profited  from  the  lessons 
taught  by  their  antagonists,  and  now  are  emulating 
their  tactics,  but  owing  to  their  imperfect  training 
and  knowledge  the  results  they  achieve  appear  to 
be  negligible. 

The  dirigible  still  remains  an  unknown  quantity 
in  these  activities,  although  strange  to  relate,  in  the 
early  days  of  the  war,  the  work  accomplished  by  the 
British  craft,  despite  their  comparatively  low  speed 
and  small  dimensions,  excelled  in  value  that  achieved 
by  the  warplanes.  This  was  particularly  noticeable 
in  matters  pertaining  to  reconnaissance,  more 
especially  at  night,  when  the  British  vessels  often 
remained  for  hours  together  in  the  air,  manoeuvring 
over  the  hostile  lines,  and  gathering  invaluable 
information  as  to  the  disposition  and  movements 
of  the  opposing  forces. 

But  it  is  probably  in  connection  with  naval 
operations  that  the  British  aerial  fleet  excels.  The 
waterplanes  have  established  their  supremacy  over 
the  naval  dirigible  in  a  striking  manner.  British 
endeavour  fostered  the  waterplane  movement  and 
has  carried  it  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  The 
waterplane  is  not  primarily  designed  to  perform 
long  flights,  although  such  may  be  carried  out  if 

T 


274    AEROPLANES  AND  DIRIGIBLES 

the  exigencies  demand.  The  practice  of  deputing 
certain  vessels  to  act  as  "  parent  ships  ''  to  a  covey 
of  waterplanes  has  proved  as  successful  in  practice 
as  in  theory.  Again,  the  arrangements  for  conveying 
these  machines  by  such  means  to  a  rendezvous,  and 
there  putting  them  into  the  water  to  complete  a 
certain  duty,  have  been  triumphantly  vindicated. 
At  the  time  this  idea  was  embraced  it  met  with  a 
certain  degree  of  hostile  criticism  :  it  was  argued 
that  the  association  of  the  two  fighting  machines 
would  tend  towards  confusion,  and  impair  the 
efficiency  of  both. 

Practice  has  refuted  this  theory.  The  British 
aerial  raids  upon  Cuxhaven  and  other  places  would 
have  been  impossible,  and  probably  valueless  as 
an  effective  move,  but  for  the  fact  that  it  was  pos- 
sible to  release  the  machines  from  a  certain  point 
upon  the  open  sea  within  easy  reach  of  the  co- 
operating naval  squadron.  True,  the  latter  was 
exposed  to  hostile  attack  from  submarines,  but  as 
results  proved  this  was  easy  to  repel.  The  aircraft 
were  enabled  to  return  to  their  base,  as  represented 
by  the  rendezvous,  to  be  picked  up,  and  to  communi- 
cate the  intelligence  gained  from  their  flight  to  the 
authorities  in  a  shorter  period  of  time  than  would 
have  been  possible  under  any  other  circumstances, 
while  the  risk  to  the  airmen  was  proportionately 
reduced. 

The  fact  that  the  belhgerents  have  built  up  such 


RECOGNITION  OF  FOURTH  ARM  275 

huge  aerial  navies  conclusively  proves  that  the 
military  value  of  the  Fourth  Arm  has  been  fully 
appreciated.  From  the  results  so  far  achieved  there 
is  every  indication  that  activity  in  this  direction 
will  be  increased  rather  than  diminished. 


T  2 


INDEX 


.    A-CLASS  (Parseval)  airship,  49 
"  Adjutant  Reau,"  the,  60 
"  Adjutant  Vincenot,"  the,  60 
Admiralty,    British,    and    the 

aerial  service,  262 
"  Aerial  Dreadnoughts,"  60 
Aerial  torpedoes,  209,  225-28 
Aeroplanes :      military     value 
of,  2-3,  81-82  ;  standardisa- 
tion    of     parts,     82  ;      the 
^        Taube,  82-84 ;  other  German 
machines,    85-86 ;     prohibi- 
tion   of    types    in    France, 
86-88 ;      French    machines, 
88-90 ;     the    British    aerial 
fleet,  90-93  ;    utility  of  the 
aeroplane  compared  with  the 
dirigible,    96-99 ;    reconnoi- 
tring  by,    99-113 ;     arming 
of,  144-6 
Air,  mining  the,  217-28 
Air-craft :    wireless  telegraphy 
for,     229-42 ;      and     naval 
operations,  243-59 
Air-resistance,  efiect  of,  52-53 
Aisne,  campaigns  of  the,  121 
"  Albatross  "  machine,  the,  85 
Alsace-Lorraine,  orchards,  182 
Aluminium,  dangers  attending 

use  of,  236-38 
American  Civil  War,  use  of  the 

balloon  in,  5 
Anti-aircraft  guns  :    Immobile 
weapons — the    Krupp    gun, 
199-203  ;     the   French  sys- 
tem, 203-6 ;    the  projectile 


problem,  206-10 ;  German 
method  of  picking  up  the 
range,     210-17.  Mobile 

weapons,  185-98  ;  work  of 
Krupp  and  Ehrhardt,  1 87-90 ; 
the  "  Archibalds,"  190-93  ; 
the  Ehrhardt  ordnance,  194  ; 
types  of  Vickers  and  Hotch- 
kiss,  195-96  ;  motor-car  dis- 
abilities, 197-98 

Antwerp,  raid  on,  124 

"  Archibalds,"  190-93,  196-97 

Argonne,  the,  268 

Armoured      motor-car,      the, 

193-94 

Arthur,  Port,  investiture, 
I 14-15 

Artillery  fire,  guidance  by  air- 
craft, I I 4-2 I 

Astra  Company,  Senor  Torres 
and  the,  53 

Astra-Torres  airship,   the,   50, 

52,  53-57 
Austria,  aerial  navy,  267 
Avro  waterplane,  the,  91 


Babington,  Flight  Com- 
mander, raid  by,  138-41 

Baden,  orchards,  182 

Balkan  campaign,  use  of  air- 
craft in  the,  95 

Balloon,  the  captive :  uses, 
3-8  ;  material  used  for,  8-9  ; 
efficiency  for  military  pur- 
poses,   1 1 -1 3  ;     equipment, 


277 


278 


INDEX 


13  ;    lifting  powers,  13-14  ; 

anchoring,    14-15 ;     finding 

the  range,  17-24  ;  researches 

of  Parseval,  45-48 
Balloon  mines,  220-21 
Basenach,  45 
Battles  in  the  air,  158-72 
Bayard-Clement    airship,    the, 

44.  50 

"  B-E  "  machine,  the,  92 

Belgium,  aerial  navy  of, 
263-64 

Berlin,  Zeppelin  factories,  39  ; 
harbouring  facilities,  6i 

Berthier  gun,  the,  155 

B16riot  monoplane,  use  for- 
bidden, 86-87 

B16riot  experimental  machine, 
92 

Blew,  Captain,  79 

Bodensee,  the,  31 

Bombs,  trawling,  223-25 

Bomb-throwing  from  aircraft, 
94-95.  124-43 ;  Zeppelin 
bombs,  124-27  ;  method  of 
launching  bombs,  127-29 ; 
types,  129-33 ;  difficulties 
of  throwing,  133-36  ;  com- 
petitions, 136-37 ;  success 
in,  137-41  ;  use  of  the 
"  flfechette,"  141-42 

Breslau,  61 

Briggs,  Flight  Commander, 
raids  by,  77,  138-41,  144 

Britain,  Zeppelin  raids  on,  124 

British  aerial  navy  :  organisa- 
tion, 51-52,  56-57,  262-64, 
266 ;  types  of  machines, 
90-93 ;  raid  on  Flemish 
coast,  91  ;  driving  tactics, 
104-5  .*  raid  on  Cuxhaven, 
250-51,  274 ;  characteristics, 
272-74 

British  artillery,  use  of  the 
aeroplane,  11 5-21 

British  expeditionary  army, 
aerial  forces,  116,  264 

British  Flying  Corps,  report  of 
Sir  John  French,  105 

British  military  aeronautical 
department,  231-32 


British  military  balloon  depart- 
ment, Chatham,  5-7 

B-type  (Parseval)  machine, 
48-49 

C-CLAss  (Parseval)  airship,  49 
"  Caudron  "  biplane,  86,  88,  89 
Cavalry,  concealment  of,  176 
Chatham,      British      miUtary 

balloon  department,  5-7 
Chevalier  anti-aircraft  gun,  206 
Codes,  122 
Collet,    Lieutenant,    raid    by, 

77.  138 
Cologne,  harbouring  facilities, 

61 
"  Colonel  Renard,"  the,  53-54 
Compass,  use  of  the,  244-45 
Constance,    Lake,    61  ;     Lieu- 
tenant Sippe  at,  139-40 
Cross  currents,   effect  on  air- 
craft. 245-47 
Cuxhaven,  raids  on,  106,  250- 
251,  274 


D-CLASS  (Parseval)  airship,  49 
Deperdussin  monoplane,  86 
"  Differential  recoil,"  192 
Dirigible,    the :     scout    work, 
95-97  ;  effect  of  haze,  97-98  ; 
superiority    over    the    aero- 
plane for  rifle  firing,  165-66  ; 
stability,  174  ;    difficulty  of 
installing  wireless  on,  236-37 
Drachen-balloon,      the,       45 ; 

vertical  steering,  47-48 
Dubilier    system    of    wireless, 

231-32 
Dummy  guns,  179-80 
Dummy  trenches,  173-74 
"  Dupuy  de  Lome,"  the,  60 
Diisseldorf,    harbouring   facili- 
ties, 61  ;    raids  on,  77,  106, 
138-41 


E-CLASS  (Parseval)  airship,  49 
East  coast  raid,  78 
Ehrhardt  of  Diisseldorf,  anti- 
aircraft gun  by,  187,  194 


INDEX 


279 


Endurance  tests,  results, 
251-52 

English  Channel,  fogs,  246 

"  Escadrilles,"  86 

Etrich,  Igo,  monoplane  of,  82  ; 
influence  on  German  aero- 
plane developments,  85.  See 
also  Taube. 

F-CLAss  (Parseval)  airship,  49 

Farman  biplanes,  86  ;  endur- 
ance, 89 

Flanders,  use  of  the  captive 
balloon  in,  4,  23-24 

"  Fl^chette,"  the,  141-43 

Fleurus,  battle  of,  5 

Floats,  use  of,  244 

Fogs,  aviation  and,  245-46 ; 
and  waterplanes,  254-57 

Frankfort,  61 

French  aerial  navy :  use  of 
the  captive  balloon,  5,  8,  50  ; 
organisation,  59,  60,  261, 
264-70  ;  standardisation  of 
parts,  82  ;  prohibition  of 
types,  86,  87,  262  ;  driving 
tactics,  104-5 ;  French 
method  of  aerial  bomb 
throwing,  127-28 ;  ruses 
adopted  by  the  French 
Flying  Corps,  177-81  ; 
French  system  of  anti- 
aircraft guns,  203-6 ;  French 
system  of  wireless  in 
aviation,  232 ;  extent  of 
fighting  zone,  239  ;  charac- 
teristics of  the  force,  272 

French,  Sir  John,  report  of  the 
British  Flying  Corps,  105 

Friedrichshafen,  Zeppelin 

factory  at,  39  ;  harbouring 
facilities,  61-63  ;  raids  on, 
77,  106,  139-40 

Fruit  raising,  military  opera- 
tions and, 182-84 

Gas,  method  of  manufacture, 
6-7 ;  use  of  coal-gas,  6 ;  non- 
inflammable,  167 ;  hydrogen, 
see  Hydrogen. 


German  aerial  force  :  use  of 
the  captive  balloon,  5-6,  9, 
15-16  ;  organisation,  42-49, 
260,  263-68,  273  ;  the  aerial 
Dreadnought  fleet,  58-69 ; 
standardisation  of  parts,  82  ; 
direction  of  artillery  fire  by, 
1 1 5-1 8  ;  methods  of  oppos- 
ing attack,  171  ;  ruses  adop- 
ted by  the,  181-82  ;  method 
of  picking  up  range  with 
anti-aircraft  guns,  210-17  ; 
mobile  wireless  stations,  234 ; 
extent  of  fighting  zone,  239  ; 
German  belief  in  the  dirigi- 
ble, 247  ;  method  of  making 
endurance  tests,  251-52 

"  Gliders,"  178-79 

"  Gotha  "  monoplane,  the,  85, 
136 

Government  -  built  French 
military  machines,  50 

"  Gross  "  airship,  the,  40,  43, 

44 
Gyroscope,  the,  227 

Haelen,  battle  of,  180-81 

Hamburg,  61 

"  Hansa,"  the,  60 

Harbours,   German   patrol   of, 

258 
Heligoland  :    Balloon  stations, 

8  ;  naval  manoeuvres,  63-65  ; 

British    force    at,    255-56 ; 

experiments  off,  258 
Hendon  aerodrome,  225 
"  Henry  "  machine,  86 
Hibernia,  H.M.S.,  254 
Horses,  use  in  wireless  installa- 
tions, 235-36 
Hotchkiss  gun,  the,  151,  155  ; 

mounted  in  armoured  motor 

cars,  195-96 
Howitzer,  the,  186,  249 
Hydrogen  gas,  use  of,  6-10,  28  ; 

lifting  power,  77 

Incendiary  bombs,  132 
Indeformable    airship,    evolu- 
tion of  the,  27-28 


aSo 


INDEX 


Italo-Ottoman   campaign,    use 
of  aircraft,  95 


"  Jambing,"  240 
Johannisthal,  63 


Kiel,  harbour  facilities,  9,  61 
"  Knapsack  "  set  for  wireless 

installation,  239 
Konigsberg,  harbour  facilities, 

61 
Kress,  82 
Krupp,  anti-aircraft  guns  by, 

187,  190,  192-203,  207,  209 

L-I,  the,  60,  62-63,  79 

L-II,  the,  65-66 

L-4,  the,  43 

L-5,  the,  71 

Ladysmith,  10 

Langley,  82 

Lanz,  42,  238 

Laussedat,  Colonel,  5 

Lebaudy  airship,  the,  43-44,  50 

Lights,       coloured,       121-22 ; 

Very's,  122 
Loiseau,     Mons.,    system     of, 

150-51 
London,  threats  of  invasion  of, 

222-23 
Luneville,  the  Zeppelin  descent 

at,  67-69,  241-42 

M-IV.  the,  44-45 

Machine  gun,  the,  use  on  air- 
craft, 92  ;  as  anti-aircraft 
weapons,  204-5 

Mannheim,  61 

Maps,  method  of  dropping  from 
aircraft,  111-12 

Marconi  Company,  wireless 
installations  of  the,  235-36 

Marix,  Flight  Commander, 
138-39 

Marten-Hale,  Mr.,  bomb 
devised  by,  131-32 

Maurice  Farman  machine,  86 

Mauser,  the,  160 


Maxim  gun,  the,  82  155,  160 

"  May-fly,"  the,  42,  52 

Mercedes  motors,'  85 

Mercury,  fulminate  of,  126 

Metal,  use  in  aeroplane  con- 
struction, 85-86 

Metre  Hill  203,  11 4- 15 

Metz,  61,  68 

Michelin,  Mons.,  136 

Mine  trawling,  223-25 

Mining  the  air,  217-28 

Mitrailleuse,  the,  152,  156,  160  ; 
use  on  the  Morane-Saulnier, 
88 

Mobile  anti-aircraft  weapons, 
185-98 

Monitors,  captive  balloons  on, 
23 

Mons,  the  retreat  at,  1 15-16 

Montgolfiers,  the,  2 

Morane-Saulnier  monoplane^ 
86-89 

Morse  code,  230 

Motors,  noiseless,  71 


Naval  operations,  aircraft  and, 

243-59 
Nicholas,  Grand  Duke,  268 
"  Nieuport  "    monoplane,    use 

forbidden,  86 
Nogi,  General,  11 4-1 5 
Non-rigid  types,  44,  46 
North    Sea    weather,     79-80, 

244-46 


Obus  fumigene,  the,  207,  208 

Orange  Free  State,  use  of  the 
captive  balloon,  9 

Orchards  as  military  covering, 
182-84 

Otto-cycle,  internal  combus- 
tion engine,  71 


Paardeburg,  10 

Pack  horses,    use   in   wireless 

installation,  235-36 
Paris,  siege  of,  1873-71,  use  of 

balloons,  5 


INDEX 


28: 


Parseval  craft,  the,  40,  43-49, 
52,  54 

Parseval-Siegsfeld  captive  bal- 
loon, the,  15-16 

Pax,  Severo,  66-67 

Photography,     aerial,     97-98, 

lOI 

Picric  acid,  use  of,  125 

Pom-pom,  the,  204 

Posen,  harbouring  facilities,  61 


Raids,  aerial,  77-80 

"  Reconnoitring  "  (R.E.) 

machine,  92 
R.E. P.    monoplane,    use    for- 
bidden, 86 
Renard,  Captain,  5 
Rigid  construction,  abandoned 

by  England  and  France,  42  ; 

the    "  Spiess  "    adopted    by 

France,  50 
Roberts,  Lord,  at  Paardeburg, 

10 
Rouget    system    of    wireless, 

231-32 
Royal    Aerial    Factory,    types 

built  at,  91-92 
Royal  Engineers  appointed  to 

the  department  at  Chatham, 

5 
"  Rumpler  "  machine,  the,  84 
Russia :      Adoption     of     the 

Astra-Torres       type,       57  ; 

aerial  navy  of,  265-66,  268 
Russo-Japanese  War,  incidents 

114-15 
"  Ruthemberg  "    airship,    the, 

40 


Samson,        Wing-Commander, 

254 
Scandinavia,  aerial  crossing  to, 

244-45 
Schiitte,   Professor,   researches 

of,  42,  238 
"  Schiitte-Lanz  "   airship,  the, 

42-43 
Schwartlose  gun,  155 
Scott,    Lieut.    Riley   E.,   prize 


gained   for    bomb-dropping, 

136 
Scouting  by  aircraft,  94-113  ; 

German     methods,     102-5 ; 

French  and  British  driving 

tactics,  104-5  ;    methods  of 

the  British  airmen,    105-6  ; 

French    airmen's    methods, 

106  ;   use  of  the  information 

gained,  107-8  ;  difficulties  of 

the  work,  109-10 ;  the  proper 

work  of  the  dirigible,  247-49 ; 

use  of  the  waterplane,  254-55 
Scriven,    General    George    P., 

report  of,  78 
Semi-armoured  motor  car,  195 
Semi-rigid  types,  43,  44 
"  Severo  "  airship,  the,  66-67 
Shrapnel,   use  of,   18,   125-26, 

131,  205,  207 
Side  drift,  245-47 
"  Siegsfeld,"  the,  45 
"  Siemens-Schukert  "    airship, 

40 
Signalling     from     aeroplanes, 

method,  118-20;    by  night, 

British     methods,     122-23  > 

codes,  122-23 
Sippe,  Flight-Lieutenant,  raid 

by,  at  Diisseldorf,  138-141 
Sleeve-valve  engine,  71 
Smoke  ball,  the,  171-72,  180 
Smoke  bomb,  the,  132-33 
Smoke  screen,  the,  172 
Smoke  signal,  the,  1 18-19,  187 
"  Soixante  -  quinze,"         the, 

156-57 
Solar  radiation,  effect  of,  244 
"  Sopwith  "  waterplane,  91 
Soudan  campaign,  use  of  the 

captive  balloon,  7-8 
Sound,  betrayal  by,  72 
"  Sounding  balloons,"  220 
South  African  War,  use  of  the 

captive  balloon  in,  9-10  ;  use 

of  the  pom-pom,  204 
Spanish- American  War,  227-28 
"  Spiess  "  airship,  the,  42.  50  ; 

air  resistance  of  the,  53 
Spion  Kop,  use  of  the  captive 

balloon,  10 


282 


INDEX 


Standardisation  of  parts,  59, 
62,  82,  86,  251-52 

Steering,  vertical,  47-48 

Strasburg,  harbouring  facili- 
ties, 61 

Strategical  reconnaissance  by 
aeroplane,  100-102 

Suakim,  1885,  use  of  captive 
balloon  at,  7 

Submarines,  detection  by  air- 
craft, 257-58 

"  Suchard,"  the,  60 

Suchard  -  Schutte  craft,  the, 
60-61 

Suspension  system,  in  the 
captive  balloon,  45-48 


T.N.T.,  125,  131 

Tactical      reconnaissance     by 

aeroplane,  99-100 
"  Taube-Rumpler  "  aeroplane, 

84 
"  Taube,"   the   (Etrich  mono- 
plane),    82  ;      direction     of 

artillery  fire  by,  118 
Templer,  Captain,  5,  7 
Tinsel  signal,  the,  118,  119,  180 
Tonkin,  1884,  use  of  the  captive 

balloon,  7-8 
Torpedoes,  aerial,  209,  225-28 
Torres,  Sefior,  and   the   Astra 

Company,  53-56 
"  Tracers,"  187,  207,  208 
Trailing  wire,  use  of  the,  231 
"  Transaerien,"  the,  60 
Transvaal,  use  of  the  captive 

balloon  in,  9-10 
Trawling,  mine,  223-25 
Trees  to  mask  troops,  182-84 
Trenches,  dummy,  173-74 
Trinitrotoluene,  226 
Turret  anti-aircraft  gun,  193-94 


Unge,  Gustave,  209 

United     States,     use     of    the 

aerial     torpedo      in,      227  ; 

method     of    launching    the 

waterplane,  254 


V-i,  the,  73-75 

Vedrines  and  the  prohibition 

order,  87 
Vertical  steering,  47-48 
Vickers'      gun      mounted      in 

armoured        motor        cars, 

195-96 
Vickers'     military     aeroplane, 

the,  148-49,  152 
"  Victoria  Luise,"  the,  60,  79 
"  Voisin  "  biplane,  work  of  the, 

86,  90 
Vosges    country,    236 ;     aerial 

work  in  the,  268 


Waterplane,  the,  use  in  the 
Navy,  252-53,  266;  launch- 
ing of  the,  253-54  »  ^s  ^  sea 
scout,  254-55  ;  "  parent 
ships,"  274 

Weight  carried  by  aeroplanes, 
231 

Wels,  82 

White,  General,  ro 

Wilhelmshaven,  61 

William  II,  relations  with 
Count  von  Zeppelin,  33, 
35-36,  58  ;  and  the  Parseval 
balloon,  48-49 

Wind,  effect  on  trajectory  of  a 
bomb,  133-36  ;  air  currents 
over  water,  244  ;  effect  of 
cross  currents,  245-47 

Wireless  in  aviation,  63,  iii  ; 
difficulties  of  establishing, 
229-31  ;  the  Dubilier  and 
Rouget  systems,  231-32  ; 
the  travelling  automobile, 
233-34  »  the  German  mobile 
wireless  station,  234 ;  the 
Marconi  installation,  235-36  ; 
dangers  attending  use  of 
aluminium,  236-38  ;  limita- 
tions of  radius,  239-40 ; 
direction  deduced  from 
sound  of  the  signals,  240-42 

Wireless  stations,  the  travel- 
ling automobile,  233-34 

Wood,  non-use  of,  85-86  ;  to 
replace  aluminium,  238 


INDEX 


283 


Wlirtemberg,  King  of,  and 
Count  von  Zeppelin,  34 

Z-4,  237 ;  descent  at  Lune- 
ville,  67-69,  241-42 

Zeppelin  airship,  the  :  evolu- 
tion, 25-40  ;  the  first  Zep- 
pelin, 29-32  ;  factories  for, 
39 ;  defects  of  the  type, 
41,  42 ;  air  resistance  of, 
52-53  ;  royal  recognition, 
58  ;  the  L-I  and  the  L-II, 
62-66 ;  ascensional  speed, 
71  ;  noiseless  motors,  71  ; 
night  operations,  71-73 ; 
harbourage      for,       75-77 ; 


bombs  thrown  by,  124-25  ; 
sheds  raided,  139 ;  guns, 
166 ;  mines  for,  222-25  .' 
wireless  installations,  236- 
37 ;  use  in  naval  tactics, 
247-49 

Zeppelin,  Count  von  :  story  of, 
25-40  ;  letter  from  William 
II,  1902,  33  ;  and  the  King 
of  Wlirtemberg,  34 .:  help 
from  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment, 35-36 ;  opinions  of, 
on  his  airship,  69,  249-50  ; 
and  the  use  of  aluminium, 
237-38 

"  Zodiac  "  machine,  the,  50 


THE  END. 


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«{AN  29  1934 


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